帝王生涯

即位

記載：帝嚳有兩個兒子──摯和放勛；帝嚳死後，以其年齡最大的兒子摯繼承帝位，為帝摯。堯好學而能幹，十三歲時就受命輔佐帝摯。帝摯才幹平庸，未能妥善管理國家。而堯仁慈愛民，明於察人，治理有方，盛德聞名天下。於是各部族首領紛紛背離帝摯，而歸附於堯。帝摯也自覺不如堯之聖明，終於在繼位九年以後，將帝位禪讓於堯。

堯踐帝位時二十三歲，以平陽（今山西臨汾市境）為都城，以火德為帝，人稱赤帝。他性格仁慈，十分聰明，年輕有為，當上天下共主，也不因而驕橫傲慢。他勤於政事，未敢休息。禮儀簡單，生活儉樸，絕不浪費百姓的一分一毫。例如他只吃用陶簋盛的粗飯淡湯，只求能飽。

實施政策

政治方面

堯為了管治天下，制定法度，禁止欺詐。他設置諫鼓，讓普通人都能對國事發表意見。他樹立謗木，鼓勵百姓批評自己的過失。他說：「如果有一個人挨餓，就是我餓了他；如果有一個人受凍，就是我凍了他；如果有一個人獲罪，就是我害了他。」堯無微不至地關心百姓，輕徭薄賦，因此百姓都十分擁戴他。他又大力提倡道德與和順，使天下百姓能融洽相處，使天下萬國和諧一致。

科技方面

帝堯任命羲和掌管天文，制定曆法，授民農時。分派羲仲、羲叔、和仲、和叔分住四方，負責觀察日月星辰萬物生靈，以通報氣候變化，使百姓能及時下種和收穫。

晚年

發生洪水

帝堯年老以後，到處都出現洪水泛濫，影響百姓生活，於是問四岳誰可以治好洪水。四岳說：「鯀可以。」帝堯說：「鯀違背教命，敗壞宗族，不行。」四岳說：「看法不同啊！讓他試試，不成功再說。」 帝堯聽從了四岳的意見，讓鯀治水，鯀花了九年時間，還沒有成功。

禪讓

史記記載

帝堯與四岳討論繼承人問題（前2075年）。帝堯說：「四岳，我在位已經七十年了，您幾位中間有誰能承天命、繼帝位呢？」四岳齊聲回答：「我等鄙陋無德，不能辱沒神聖的帝位。」帝堯說：「那麼，把近親貴戚和隱匿民間的大德大才的人都推薦上來吧！」大家一致推舉道：「有個民間的鰥夫，叫虞舜。」帝堯說：「噢，我聽說過。這個人究竟怎樣？」四岳說：「他是一個瞎子的兒子。父親固執，母親放肆，弟弟傲慢，他卻能以孝道使得家庭和睦，不至於出亂子。」帝堯說：「那就讓他試試吧！」於是帝堯將兩個女兒娥皇、女英嫁給舜，來觀察他的德性。舜讓二妃回媯汭（河名，今山西）家中，去侍奉公婆，盡行婦道。帝堯很滿意，又讓九個兒子跟隨舜，來觀察他處理社會事務的能力。帝堯派舜負責協調民間父義、母慈、兄友、弟恭、子孝這五種人倫關係，取得成績，連帝堯的九個兒子也受到教育，變得更加淳厚謹敬。帝堯又派舜輪流到幾個官府任職。舜都盡職盡責，制定製度，使各官府的行政走上了正規。帝堯又派舜接待四方朝見的部族酋長和使者，舜態度嚴謹和睦，處事得當，使者都很敬仰中朝。帝堯派舜到山林川澤中去，在暴風雷雨交加中，舜都沒有迷路。堯覺得，權力傳給舜，天下人會受益，卻不利於丹朱；如果將權力傳給丹朱，就會使丹朱得益，而不利於天下人。他想：「我總不能讓天下人受害而只對一個人有好處！」於是他召見舜，說：「你謀劃事情詳盡周到，言論意見都獲得了實效，試用三年了，你就登上帝位吧！」舜推辭道：「我的德行不夠，總覺得還不能穩妥地擔當大任。」最後（前2072年，己丑），舜接受了堯的禪讓，登上共主之位。

也有部分古籍記載，帝堯受舜的挑唆，認為自己的兒子丹朱不行，不能將天下交給他。舜讓人在堯的面前舉薦自己，讓堯覺得舜很聖明，終於堯決定將權力交給舜。

另外，堯曾計劃把天下讓給許由，許由沒有接受，堯又要把天下讓給子州支父，子州支父也沒有接受。

竹書紀年與法家記載

《竹書紀年》中記載，舜將堯放逐到平陽囚禁，先立丹朱為帝，後奪取帝位。

關於舜脅迫堯父子讓位，在古代並非只有《竹書紀年》孤證，戰國時期的荀子、韓非子亦先後有類似說法。《荀子·正論》：「夫曰堯舜禪讓，是虛言也，是淺者之傳，是陋者之說也。」而《韓非子·說疑》：「舜逼堯，禹逼舜，湯放桀，武王伐紂，此四人者，人臣弒其君者也。」；而成書時代約略同期的《山海經·海內南經》「蒼梧之山，帝舜葬於陽，帝丹朱葬於陰」文中更稱呼丹朱為帝，間接否定了堯直接禪位予舜的觀點。因此後來的《汲塚瑣語》依據《竹書紀年》，而對此提出了疑問：「舜放堯於陽，而書雲某地有城，以囚堯為號，識者憑斯異說，頗以禪受為疑。」，從現實面來說，即使從《孟子·萬章上》：「丹朱之不肖，舜之子亦不肖。」文中推測堯話認為丹朱不肖而有讓國的個人想法，但仍須面對整個家族利益集團的反對，因為在空間資源有限的情況下，這個舉動會涉及到急遽的權利與資源重分配，必然產生新舊團體間的紛爭。也因此即使是舜受禪觀點，亦有三苗不服，舜於是發動戰爭解決的記載。無論如何，在西漢後獨尊儒術、採納單一史觀的發展下，有關舜逼堯讓位的說法逐漸隱沒，而不為人所重視。

《史通·疑古》引《汲塚瑣語》文：「昔堯德衰，為舜所囚也。」

後世亦有人懷疑堯舜並非禪讓：曹丕篡漢之後，感嘆道：「舜禹之事，吾知之矣。」唐朝詩人李白在《遠別離》寫到：「堯幽囚，舜野死。」，懷疑堯舜禪讓的說法。

駕崩

堯讓位後，繼續關注國事，經常巡視天下，做了許多利國利民的事。禪位二十八年以後（前2048年，癸丑），堯以一百一十八歲高齡逝世，安葬於濟陰成陽（今山東省菏澤市牡丹區胡集鄉）。百姓們聽到堯逝世的消息，無不悲痛萬分，如喪父母。在此後的三年中，人們自動停止了各種娛樂活動，以表達對堯的哀思。三年喪期結束，舜提出讓位給丹朱，自己避居於南河以南的荒野。人們都不服丹朱的號令，還是向舜朝覲，百姓照樣謳歌舜的盛德。舜說：「這是天意啊！」於是重新回到國都，再一次共主之位。

家庭

后妃

• 女皇，出自散宜氏，根據《世本》她是丹朱的母親。《世本》：「堯娶散宜氏之子，謂之女皇。」宋忠：「女皇是生丹朱。」《帝系》《漢書》同。

• 女瑩，根據《帝王世紀》她是丹朱的母親。《帝王世紀》：女瑩生丹朱。《漢書》亦云女瑩。

子女

• 娥皇，堯的女兒，嫁給舜。

• 女英，堯的女兒，嫁給舜。

• 丹朱，從小極受堯的寵愛，但其個性剛烈，欠政治智慧，被堯視為「不肖之子」。

• 還有九個兒子，名字不詳。

其他與堯有關的事

• 據傳說，堯因命羿殺十日，夏人聯合有仍氏、有虞氏複仇，滅戈，滅過，殺澆，堯王城成為一片廢墟。

• 道教認為天官大帝為堯，與地官大帝（舜）、水官大帝（禹），合稱三官大帝。

• 周武王時，追思元聖，褒封堯裔二十三世名京。遷至平陽（今山西省臨汾縣西南）。其裔改姓堯。

• 西漢宣帝，因為漢宣帝說堯有犯諱：「具奏曰：『唐堯乃百聖至聖，五帝盛帝，今京兆尉堯濙，實其後裔！應合避諱』。」故加食字改為饒。

• 《呂氏春秋·召類》記載：堯在丹水戰勝三苗。

• 宋代的學者羅泌在《路史·後紀十》中記載：堯教兒子丹朱如何下圍棋，想以此來改變丹朱的性情。

考古研究

陶寺遺址被認為是可能的堯的都城。

評價

• 《笠翁對韻》：「曹公奸似鬼，堯帝智如神。」

• 漢宣帝：「唐堯乃百聖至聖，五帝盛帝……」

注釋

相關

• 澹臺姓

• 三皇五帝

Ancestry and early life

Yao's ancestral name is Yi Qi (伊祁) or Qi (祁), clan name is Taotang (陶唐), given name is Fangxun (放勳), as the second son to Emperor Ku and Qingdu (慶都). He is also known as Tang Yao (唐堯).

Yao's mother has been worshipped as the goddess Yao-mu.

Legacy

Often extolled as the morally perfect and intelligent sage-king, Yao's benevolence and diligence served as a model to future Chinese monarchs and emperors. Early Chinese accounts often speak of Yao, Shun and Yu the Great as historical figures, and contemporary historians believed they may represent leader-chiefs of allied tribes who established a unified and hierarchical system of government in a transition period to the patriarchal feudal society. In the Classic of History, one of the Five Classics, the initial chapters deal with Yao, Shun and Yu.

Legends

According to the legend, Yao became the ruler at 20 and died at 119 when he passed his throne to Shun the Great, to whom he had given his two daughters in marriage. According to the Bamboo Annals, Yao abdicated his throne to Shun in his 73rd year of reign, and continued to live during Shun's reign for another 28 years.

It was during the reign of Emperor Yao that the Great Flood began, a flood so vast that no part of Yao's territory was spared, and both the Yellow River and the Yangtze valleys flooded. The alleged nature of the flood is shown in the following quote:

According to both historical and mythological sources, the flooding continued relentlessly. Yao sought to find someone who could control the flood, and turned for advice to his special adviser, or advisers, the Four Mountains (四嶽 or 四岳, Sìyuè); who, after deliberation, gave Emperor Yao some advice which he did not especially welcome. Upon the insistence of Four Mountains, and over Yao's initial hesitation, the person Yao finally consented to appoint in charge of controlling the flood was Gun, the Prince of Chong, who was a distant relative of Yao's through common descent from the Yellow Emperor.

Even after nine years of the efforts of Gun, the flood continued to rage on, leading to the increase of all sorts of social disorders. The administration of the empire was becoming increasingly difficult; so, accordingly, at this point, Yao offered to resign the throne in favor of his special adviser(s), Four Mountains: however, Four Mountains declined, and instead recommended Shun – another distant relative to Yao through the Yellow Emperor; but one who was living in obscurity, despite his royal lineage.

Yao proceeded to put Shun through a series of tests, beginning with marrying his two daughters to Shun and ending by sending him down from the mountains to the plains below where Shun had to face fierce winds, thunder, and rain. After passing all of Yao's tests, not the least of which being establishing and continuing a state of marital harmony together with Yao's two daughters, Shun took on administrative responsibilities as co-emperor. Among these responsibilities, Shun had to deal with the Great Flood and its associated disruptions, especially in light of the fact that Yao's reluctant decision to appoint Gun to handle the problem had failed to fix the situation, despite having been working on it for the previous nine years. Shun took steps over the next four years to reorganize the empire, in such a way as to solve immediate problems and to put the imperial authority in a better position to deal with the flood and its effects.

Contributions

Of his many contributions, Yao is said to have invented the game of Weiqi, reportedly to favorably influence his vicious playboy son Danzhu. After the customary three-year mourning period after Yao's death, Shun named Danzhu as the ruler but the people only recognized Shun as the rightful heir.

Bamboo Annals

The Bamboo Annals represent Yao as having banished prince Danzhu to Danshui in his 58th year of reign. They add that following Yao's abdication in favor of Shun, Danzhu kept away from Shun, and that following the death of Yao, "Shun tried to yield the throne to him, but in vain."

However, an alternative account found elsewhere in the Annals offers a different story. It holds that Shun dethroned and imprisoned Yao, then raised Danzhu to the throne for a short time before seizing it himself.

Dynastic succession

Yao was claimed to be the ancestor of the Han Dynasty Emperor Liu Bang. Other important noble families have also claimed descent through Yellow Emperor.

Astronomical observations

According to some Chinese classic documents such as Yao Dian (Document of Yao) in Shang Shu (Book of Documents), and Wudibenji (Records for the Five Kings) in the Shiji (Historic Records), the King Yao assigned astronomic officers to observe celestial phenomena such as the sunrise, sunset, and the rising of the evening stars. This was done in order to make a solar and lunar calendar with 366 days for a year, also providing for the leap month.

Some recent archaeological work at Taosi, an ancient site in Shanxi, dating to 2300 BCE–1900 BCE, may have provided some evidence for this. A sort of an ancient observatory – the oldest in East Asia – was found at Taosi that seems to coincide with the ancient records.

Some Chinese archaeologists believe that Taosi was the site of a state Youtang (有唐) conquered by Emperor Yao and made to be his capital.

The structure consists of an outer semi-ring-shaped path, and a semi-round rammed-earth platform with a diameter of about 60 m; it was discovered in 2003–2004.