歷史

遷移與割據夏州

西夏由党項族所建立。党項族是羌族的一支，帶有鮮卑的血統。唐朝時居住在四川松潘高原一帶，是唐朝的羈糜州之一。當時分有八部，以拓跋氏最為強盛。吐蕃於唐朝安史之亂後占領河西一帶，並且壓迫党項。唐高宗時期，党項首領拓跋赤辭在唐朝幫助下遷移到陝北一帶，奠定党項興起的根據地。881年（唐中和元年，占據宥州的平夏部拓跋思恭因平定黃巢之亂有功，受唐僖宗詔封為夏州節度使，賜號「定難軍」。協助收復長安後，883年（中和三年）封夏國公，賜唐朝國姓「李」，領有夏銀等地，夏州政權（正式稱呼是夏州節度使或定難軍）形成一個割據陝北的籓鎮。五代十國時，夏州政權避免介入中原各勢力間的內鬥，向五代與北漢稱臣以鞏固在陝北的勢力。然而後唐時，唐明宗意圖將延州節度使安從進與夏州節度使李彞超對調以併吞夏州政權。李彞超極力反對，成功擊退安從進率領的後唐軍，在北宋初年時累積雄厚的實力。

960年宋太祖趙匡胤建立宋朝後，夏州政權首領李彞殷向北宋稱臣，並且多次協助北宋對抗北漢。當北宋陸續平定南方各國後，宋太宗開始將目光放在北方，有意削除夏州政權。此時李氏家族反對李繼捧擔任夏州節度使。982年宋太宗招李繼捧與其族人遷居開封，命親宋的李克文繼任之，夏州政權被北宋併吞。李繼捧族弟李繼遷不願投降宋朝，率族人逃往地斤澤（今陝西橫山縣東北）抗宋。984年宋將尹憲、曹光實擊破夏軍。隔年李繼遷由弱轉強，攻破宋軍後陸續收復銀、夏等等夏州領地。990年（淳化元年）被遼朝遼聖宗冊封為夏國王，即被追尊的夏太祖。宋廷採取以夷制夷方式，派李繼捧回任夏州，招撫李繼遷任銀州，並對此二人賜姓趙。不久李繼遷又叛，於996年（至道二年）擊退宋將李繼隆率領的五路大軍。在鞏固夏州領地後，一直努力西擴河西，最後於1002年（咸平五年）第三次攻打靈州（今寧夏靈武西南）時成功攻下，改名西平府。宋朝至此無力圍堵，於隔年承認李繼遷領有夏州領地。李繼遷陸續占領涼州（今甘肅武威縣）等河西重鎮，擊退與宋朝聯手的河西涼州吐蕃六穀部。兩年後，李繼遷被六穀部首領潘羅支襲擊而亡，享年四十二歲。後被其長孫李元昊追封為夏太祖。其長子李德明於柩前即位，即被追尊的夏太宗。

快速擴張

李德明繼位後，因為國土快速膨脹，為了穩固國力以抵禦四方敵國，有意與宋和談；而北宋對外戰事也由擴張轉為和平，與遼朝簽署澶淵之盟後也希望西北也能穩定下來。最後雙方於1006年（宋景德三年）雙方簽署景德和議。並受宋朝封西平王之爵位，後改封夏國公。李德明為了維護自身獨立，東和宋朝，北附遼朝，並讓太子李元昊迎娶遼朝的興平公主。對內方面，李德明定都興州（今寧夏銀川東南），採取保境安民、注重生產的策略。並且請求北宋於保安軍（今陝西丹縣）設置榷場，聽許兩國貿易。此外積極西征河西。1008年（宋大中祥符元年）遼朝冊封李德明為大夏國王。1028年（宋天聖六年）派太子李元昊攻下甘州（今甘肅張掖縣），甘州回鶻首領夜落隔通順自殺，降服吐蕃六穀部首領折逋游龍缽。而後又奪肅州，降服瓜州歸義軍的曹賢順。至此夏州政權國力大盛，為日後李元昊稱帝立國建立穩固的基礎。1032年（宋明道元年、遼景福二年）李德明去世，追封為夏太宗。其子李元昊繼位。

李元昊繼位後完成河西走廊的佔領，並且積極準備脫離宋朝獨立建國。他首先棄李姓，自稱嵬名氏，以北魏王室後裔自居。採楊守素的建議，以避父諱為由，改宋朝年號明道為顯道，以建立自己的年號。隨後建宮殿，下禿髮令，恢復故俗，都興慶府，設文武二班，立軍名，用兵制，創造西夏文，改定禮樂等。

稱帝建國

1038年11月10日（大慶三年十月十一日）李元昊正式稱帝，即夏景宗，改元天授禮法延祚，定都興州並升為興慶府，建國號「大夏」，亦稱西夏，至此西夏正式立國。夏景宗霸氣縱橫，脫離對宋、遼的臣屬關係。為了要獨霸西方，他四處擴土，先後和宋遼開戰，為西夏武力顛峰的時候。

夏景宗於隔年採取聯遼抗宋的戰略不斷入侵宋邊境，並且要求宋朝承認西夏獨立。當時北宋在橫山山脈一帶建立不少堡壘，不過東方重鎮延州防禦薄弱，守將范雍無能。1040年（宋寶元二年）夏景宗發動三川口之戰，率10萬大軍包圍延州，於三川口襲擊宋將劉平、石元孫的援軍，最後夏軍因大雪而解圍撤退。宋廷面對西夏大舉入侵，派夏竦為正使、韓琦與范仲淹為副使經略西夏。當時宋軍兵多於西夏，但是不擅野戰、補給也不易，主攻的韓琦與主守的范仲淹對此爭執不斷。1041年夏景宗發動大軍包圍宋朝西線的渭川、懷遠一帶，韓琦不聽派范仲淹建議派大將任福率大軍救援懷遠，夏景宗引誘至埋伏地好水川口襲擊，此即好水川之戰。此後宋廷轉為防禦，改派陳執中、夏竦經略，並且建立四路防線。1042年西夏謀臣張元建議避開宋防線，繞道奇襲京兆府（長安）。同年夏景宗於防線薄弱的涇原路發動定川寨之戰，於定川寨包圍殲滅宋軍，目標是長安，但另一路遇到原州景泰的阻擊而罷。宋夏戰爭一直到1044年才平息。雙方簽訂慶曆和議，宋朝承認西夏的割據地位，給予若干財物茶葉，封夏景帝為夏國主。西夏對宋稱臣，但對內依舊稱帝，實際上仍然是獨立的國家。

西夏擊敗宋朝後，自稱西朝，稱遼朝為北朝。遼朝遼興宗不滿西夏壯大，意圖再度壓服之。1043年在慶曆增幣後，遼興宗為報答宋朝，以國內西南部的党項叛附西夏為由，於隔年冬率大軍伐夏。西夏求和不成，採取堅壁清野方式擊潰遼軍。戰後四年夏景宗去世之際，遼軍又於1049年來犯。夏軍極力抵抗，最後雙方和談而止。

夏景宗建國西夏並推行中央集權，雖然鞏固了帝權，但同時與貴族的矛盾進一步加深。他獨裁專制、日益驕淫並且貪好女色。後宮之亂引來貴族衛慕氏的叛變（1034年）。又中種世衡的反間計而錯殺野利旺榮與野利遇乞，並且迷戀迎娶野利遇乞的妻子沒藏氏，生李諒祚。太子李寧林格與夏景宗因廢母（野利皇后）奪妻（沒移皇后）之仇，被沒藏氏的弟弟沒藏訛龐教唆刺殺夏景宗。夏景宗死後沒藏訛龐殺太子，立兩歲的李諒祚繼位，即夏毅宗。

母黨專權

夏毅宗與夏惠宗時期時，夏廷對內進一步鞏固統治，對外常與宋遼兩國處於戰爭與議和的狀態。夏毅宗繼位時年幼，由其母沒藏太后與沒藏訛龐專政。當時遼朝遼興宗再度攻打西夏，最後西夏向遼朝稱臣。沒藏太后荒淫好色，多次勾結外人，其中李守貴與吃多己多次爭寵。最後李守貴殺太后與吃多己，事後也被沒藏訛龐所殺。沒藏訛龐又將其女許配夏毅宗以控制小皇帝。1059年夏毅宗參與政事，沒藏訛龐密謀刺殺夏毅宗，後被夏帝誅殺全家。親政後，夏毅宗娶協助他剷除沒藏訛龐的梁氏，任用梁乙埋與景詢等人。對內整治軍隊使地方軍政分立，文武官員互相牽制，提倡漢文化與技術，廢行蕃禮，改用漢儀，並於1063年改姓為李。對外方面，與宋重新劃定邊界，恢復榷場，貿易正常化。對吐蕃多次戰事，占領河湟與青海一帶，於1063年招撫西域城（今甘肅定西縣）吐蕃首領禹藏花麻。夏毅宗的改革對以後各朝產生了深遠影響，然而於1066年與北宋作戰時受箭傷，兩年後去世，由其子7歲的李秉常即位，即夏惠宗。

由於夏惠宗年幼，由其母梁太后掌握大權，形成了以梁太后與梁乙埋為首的母黨專權。母黨大力發展其勢力，提倡番禮，重用都羅尾與罔萌訛，排擠夏景宗的弟弟嵬名浪遇等反對派。1080年，夏惠宗最後在皇族嵬名氏的協助下得以親政。夏惠宗崇尚漢法，下令以漢禮藩儀，遭到梁太后為主的保守派極力反對。對此，夏惠宗想用大臣李清策的建議，將河南地區歸還宋朝，以利用宋朝削弱外戚勢力。不料機密洩漏，梁太后殺李清策，幽禁夏惠宗。梁太后此舉引來皇黨、仁多族的叛亂，連吐蕃禹藏花麻都向宋朝請求派兵攻打梁太后。此時宋朝正值宋神宗王安石變法而國力增強，並在1071年由王韶於熙河之戰占領熙河路，對西夏右廂地區造成威脅。1081年宋神宗聽從種諤建議，趁西夏內亂之際，以李憲為總指揮發動五路伐夏，目標興慶府。梁太后採取堅壁清野策略，襲擊糧道以粉碎五路宋軍，宋軍最後只奪下蘭州。隔年年宋軍採取碉堡戰術，派徐禧興建永樂城，步步壓縮西夏在橫山的軍事空間。梁太后趁永樂城新建之初，率30萬大軍包圍攻陷，宋軍慘敗，史稱永樂城之戰。西夏雖然多次擊潰宋軍，但與宋朝貿易中斷使經濟衰退，戰事頻繁又大耗國力，人民不滿。梁太后與梁乙埋最後於1083年讓夏惠宗復位，以平和矛盾，然而夏惠宗依舊沒有掌握實權。梁乙埋去世後，政權轉由其子梁乙逋掌握。1086年夏惠宗在憂憤之下去世，由3歲兒子李乾順即位，即夏崇宗。

此時西夏政權又落入小梁太后及梁乙逋手中。宋朝宋哲宗時期，知渭州章楶建議對西夏採取經濟制裁與碉堡作戰，其後為了實踐這套戰術，他在公元1096年於西邊的渭川修建平夏城與靈平砦，並且多次擊退夏軍。隔年宋軍攻入東邊的洪州、鹽州。1098年小梁太后偕同夏崇宗猛攻平夏城而敗，大將嵬名阿埋與妹勒都逋均被擒，史稱平夏城之戰。宋軍隨後興建西安州與天都寨，打通涇原路與熙河路，秦州變成內地。宋朝控制橫山地區後，西夏處境日益艱困。1099年在遼朝遼道宗的周旋下，宋夏再度和談，西夏向宋朝請罪而終。西夏在母黨專權的十年裡，梁乞逋依仗「梁氏一門二后」的威勢，連連發動與北宋和遼朝的戰爭，使西夏蒙受嚴重損失。他經常在朝廷上向眾大臣誇耀自己的功勞，認為西夏連年出征，主要就是讓宋朝屈服，只有這樣才能使西夏獲得和平。環慶之戰時，梁乙逋被小梁太后制止出征而懷恨在心。他意圖叛變，但是事機敗露。小梁太后命嵬名阿吳、仁多宗保與撒辰率兵逮捕處死。小梁太后親自專權後，為了加強對宋朝戰事，多次向遼朝請求援軍被拒。遼廷對小梁太后極度反感，認為遼夏戰爭是由她引起，而小梁太后因多次被拒也惡言相向。1099年夏崇宗親政在即，但「梁氏專恣，不許主國事」。遼朝遼道宗派使至西夏，用毒藥毒死小梁太后。至此長期的太后專政終止，西夏皇帝得以親政。

外和內憂

1099年夏崇宗親政後採取依附遼朝，與北宋修和的策略，逐年減少戰爭。對內推廣漢文化，注重經濟，使得社會經濟得到恢復和發展。宋朝宋徽宗時期，宋廷執行「紹盛開邊」政策。1114年童貫經略西夏，率領六路宋軍（包含永興、秦鳳兩路）伐夏。雖然西夏多次擊敗劉法、劉仲武與种師道等宋將，但宋軍也攻陷不少堡壘。最後西夏緊急向遼朝請求周旋，到1119年宋軍才率軍而退，夏崇宗再度向宋朝表示臣服。此時西夏國勢不如以往，而北宋也瀕臨崩潰邊緣。

1115年金朝興起，三國鼎立的局面被破壞，遼朝、北宋先後被滅，西夏經濟被金朝掌控。1123年退往漠北的遼朝遼天祚帝有意逃往西夏，金朝將領完顏宗望勸誘夏崇宗捕捉遼帝，許以下寨以北、陰山以南的遼地，並以進攻西夏為脅。夏崇宗答應條件，轉而連金滅遼，從此西夏歸服金朝。1125年遼朝亡後，金朝約西夏夾攻北宋，並且給予宋地為誘餌。西夏占領天德軍、雲內等地後，1126年又被金朝強占，並且被強索河東八館之地。金朝為了補償西夏，同意占領陝西後將橫山地區歸還，但又違約。這些都讓金夏關係處於不信任的狀態。然而西夏與南宋隔絕，又讓西夏只能依賴金朝的經濟。這些都使得西夏對金朝維持鬆弛的和平，最多隻有小規模的戰事。1141年金朝同意設置榷場，一度開放鐵禁。但是金世宗時不願以紡織品換取西夏的奢侈品，採取貿易緊縮的方式，到十年後才恢復正常貿易。夏崇宗於1139年去世後由其子李仁孝繼位，即夏仁宗。

夏仁宗時期是西夏的文化思想的發展到達高峰，對金朝大致上處於和平狀態。但是他重文輕武、務虛廢實的方式，使西夏軍力逐步走向衰落。宋朝降將任得敬才智均佳，陸續平定1140年夏將蕭合達叛變與隔年的山訛首領慕洧、慕濬投奔金朝之亂，備受夏仁宗重用。1143年發生大饑荒和地震，民不聊生，哆訛等人於威州、靜州與定州發動民變，夏仁宗又派任得敬平定。任得敬因被重用而野心膨脹，受晉王李察哥推薦入京。1156年李察哥去世後掌握政權，擴大私有勢力。1160年被封為楚王，出入等同皇帝。任得敬有意篡位，他以靈州為都城，1170年又迫夏仁宗給予靈州、西夏西南等領地。然而屢次不受金廷支持，任得敬與其弟任得聰等人陰謀叛亂。夏仁宗在金朝的支持下成功撲滅任黨，這個掌握政權二十年的權臣終於被拔除。夏仁宗於1143年的民變後，為了促進經濟穩定而推行改革。他改良地租和賦稅制度；發展教育，實行科舉；推崇儒術，以科舉取仕，這些措施對抑制世家大族有一定的作用；改革禮樂和法律。到天盛年間出現了盛世。1193年夏仁宗去世，子李純佑立，即夏桓宗。

夏桓宗基本上依循夏仁宗的國策，對內安國養民，推行漢法儒學，對外與金朝和好。但是，此時西夏過於安逸，軍力大大衰減。不久，北方的蒙古帝國興起，打破金宋與西夏三國鼎立的地位。夏仁宗的弟弟越王李仁友在挫敗任得敬之亂有功，去世後其子李安全上表請求表彰其父功勳與承襲王位。然而夏桓宗不但不同意，還降其為鎮夷郡王。李安全不滿，遂萌篡奪帝位之心。1206年與夏桓宗之母羅太后聯合廢夏桓宗，自立為帝，即夏襄宗。不久，夏桓宗去世。

蒙古入侵與亡國

西夏與漠北鄰國克烈部的關係十分友好，但是蒙古部的鐵木真崛起後開始威脅克烈部，成為西夏晚期的外患。1203年克烈部被鐵木真攻滅，其領袖王汗之子桑昆逃往西夏。兩年後，鐵木真率軍攻打西夏，掠奪西夏邊界城市而去。夏桓宗為擊退外患，改興慶府名為中興府，取夏國中興之意，實際上西夏反而壟罩在蒙古的威脅之下。1206年鐵木真建立蒙古帝國，即成吉思汗，後被尊稱元太祖。成吉思汗為了要攻滅敵國金朝，勢必要切斷金夏聯盟，所以西夏成為他的目標之一。隔年夏襄宗奪位不久，成吉思汗率大軍攻破西夏要塞斡羅孩城（今內蒙古烏拉特中後旗西境），因各路夏軍奮力抵抗而擊退之。1209年蒙古降服高昌回鶻，河西地區也暴露在蒙古威脅之下。蒙古第三次征夏即自河西入侵，出黑水城，圍攻斡羅孩關口。夏襄宗派其子李承禎率軍抵抗失敗，夏將高逸被俘而死。蒙軍又攻陷西壁訛答守備的斡羅孩城，直逼中興府的最後防線克夷門。夏將嵬名令公率軍伏擊蒙軍，最後仍被蒙軍擊潰。中興府被蒙軍圍困，夏襄宗派使向金朝金帝完顏永濟求救，但是金帝拒絕，還以鄰國遭攻打為樂而坐視不救。最後夏襄宗納女請和，貢獻大量物資，並且附蒙伐金。

夏襄宗附蒙伐金後，對金朝進行長達十餘年的戰爭，使雙方損失很大。國內方面，西夏百姓十分貧困，經濟生產受到破壞，軍隊衰弱，政治腐敗。夏襄宗本身也沉湎于酒色之中，整日不理朝政。1211年齊王李遵頊發動宮庭政變，廢夏襄宗自立為帝，即夏神宗，史書稱為狀元皇帝。夏神宗不顧國內大臣反對，仍然堅持附蒙抗金，金宣宗也多次反擊之。此時西夏國內社會經濟凋蔽，民變不斷。1216年因為西夏不肯幫助成吉思汗西征，次年成吉思汗率軍第四次進攻西夏。夏神宗以太子李德任守中興府，自己逃至西京靈州。最後李德任派使向蒙古和談才終戰。1223年由于夏神宗不願做亡國之君，便讓位給次子李德旺（原太子李德任被廢），即夏獻宗。此時夏廷已經認清蒙古將會滅亡西夏，夏獻宗決定採取聯金抗蒙的策略，趁成吉思汗西征時派使聯合漠北諸部落抗蒙，以便鞏固西夏北疆。當時總管漢地的蒙將孛魯（木華黎之子）察覺西夏的意圖，於1224年率軍從東面攻入西夏，攻陷銀州，夏將塔海被俘。隔年成吉思汗得勝返國，同時率軍攻打沙洲，但西夏名將籍辣思義極力防守，成吉思汗久攻半年不下，試圖挖地道入城，被籍辣思義用煙火熏死不少蒙古士兵，不得已轉戰揮師東進。最後夏獻宗同意蒙軍條件請和，蒙軍撤退。

1226年成吉思汗以夏獻宗沒有履約及接納蒙古仇人為由，越大漠向西夏出征，此即蒙古滅西夏之戰。成吉思汗與速不台率大軍逼降黑水城（今內蒙額濟納旗），而後成吉思汗屯軍渾垂山（今甘肅酒泉北）避暑，並令速不台率別部迂迴攻入撒里畏吾兒（即黃頭回紇）與西蕃邊部（吐蕃諸部）等部。成吉思汗派忽都鐵穆兒、昔里鈴部、察罕等將先後攻下肅州、甘州與沙州（1227年淪陷），大軍前進至涼州並降伏守將斡扎簣，至此河西走廊全數淪陷。夏獻宗憂患而死，由其侄南平王李睍繼位，即夏末帝。同年八月，成吉思汗率軍穿越沙漠，攻占應理（今寧夏中衛）進軍黃河九渡渡過黃河，主力逼近廢太子李德任守衛的西平府靈州。夏末帝派嵬名令公率軍與李德任會合，蒙夏雙方於凍結的黃河決戰，此役西夏軍死傷慘重，最後城陷被殺，但蒙軍也受損不少，成吉思汗駐守鹽州川（今陝西定邊花馬池）休整軍隊。1227年，成吉思汗此時將目標訂為攻佔西夏退路，並迂迴侵入金朝關中。他命蒙軍（應為蒙將阿術魯率領）包圍中興府（今寧夏銀川），並且率軍西南渡河攻下西夏積石州（今青海循化），與早已入侵西夏西南的速不台會合，陸續拿下西夏西寧（今青海西寧）、臨洮府（今甘肅臨洮）、金朝德順（今甘肅隆德）等西夏與金朝領地。同年6月，成吉思汗駐夏六盤山，又南下攻取金朝秦州（今甘肅天水），逼近關中京兆府（今陝西西安）。1227年夏末帝在中興府被圍半年後投降蒙古，西夏滅亡。成吉思汗此時已病死，但密不發喪，以免西夏反悔。而後諸將遵照成吉思汗遺命將夏末帝殺死，並且殺盡西夏宗室。而中興府百姓因蒙將察罕的勸諫而沒有被屠城。但西夏興慶府的皇宮、離宮、建築、典籍、史料、陵寢都被蒙古軍隊破壞和焚燒殆盡，甚至連賀蘭山山谷內的眾多佛寺也被破壞。

蒙古建立元代中原政權後，同宋遼金不同，並未修纂西夏史，不將其視為中華歷史上的一朝。因此西夏也是宋遼金夏時期唯一未列入二十四史的朝代。

疆域與行政區劃

1038年西夏立國時，疆域範圍在今寧夏，甘肅西北部、青海東北部、內蒙古西部以及陝西北部地區。東盡黃河，西至玉門，南接蕭關（今寧夏同心南），北控大漠，佔地兩萬餘里。西夏東北與遼朝西京道相鄰，東面與東南面與宋朝為鄰。金朝滅遼宋後，西夏的東北、東與南都與金朝相鄰。西夏南部和西部是吐蕃諸部、黃頭回鶻與西州回鶻相鄰。國內三分之二以上是沙漠地形，水源以黃河與山上雪水形成的地下水為主。首都興慶府所在的銀川平原，西有賀蘭山作屏障，東有黃河灌溉，有「天下黃河富寧夏之稱」。

西夏是党項族建立的王朝，党項族原本定居四川松潘高原一帶。唐高宗時期受吐蕃壓迫，最後在唐廷協助下遷移到河套陝北一帶，分為平夏部與東山部，至此建立西夏的龍興之地。881年因平夏部拓跋思恭平黃巢之亂有功，被封為夏州節度使，至此正式領有銀州（今陝西米脂縣）、夏州（今陝西橫山縣）、綏州（今陝西綏德縣）、宥州（今陝西靜邊縣）與靜州（今陝西米脂縣西）等五州之地。宋朝時，宋太宗併吞夏州節度使之地。然而李繼遷不願意投降，率部四處攻擊，最後收復五州之地。攻下靈州後，將勢力擴展到黃河河套地區與河西走廊。夏景宗繼位後持續鞏固河西走廊，並且開國稱帝，疆域擴大到二十個州。而後夏景宗與宋朝征戰於橫山地區，並有意占領關中。夏景宗之後，西夏與北宋展開拉鋸戰，雙方互相占領對方的堡壘城寨，並且擴大到河湟青海地區。夏崇宗後期喪失橫山地區，一度造成危機。金朝滅遼朝與北宋後，西夏陸續收復失地，並且占領黃河前套地區。然而其勢力被金朝所侷限，領土擴張不大。到夏仁宗時期大約有22個州，這是西夏版圖最後穩固的狀態。

西夏行政區劃大體上是州（府）縣兩級，一些重點州則設府。另分左右廂十二監軍司，作為軍管區。西夏在建國前只領有五州之地。占領河套地區與河西走廊後，在夏崇宗、夏仁宗時期達到22州：河南9州、河西9州，熙秦河外4州。文獻記載比較明確的有32州。州所轄縣不多，有的就是堡壘和城鎮，其規模比不上宋朝的州。其目的為軍事布防，安置親信、族內豪強以嚴密控制而已。昇州為府的有河套的興州（興慶府、中興府）、靈州（西平府）與河西走廊的涼州（西涼府）、甘州（宣化府）等。興慶府為西夏首都，靈州（西平府）為西夏陪都，都處于相對富饒、黃河灌溉農業發達的銀川平原。夏州、靈州與興州相繼是西夏立國前的都城，地位十分重要。涼州控管河西走廊與河套地區的樞紐，地理位置重要。甘州所設的宣化府，負責處理吐蕃、回鶻的事務。左右廂與十二監軍司主要是夏景宗為了方便對軍隊的管理與調遣、佈防而設置的。每一監軍司都仿宋制立有軍名，規定駐地。

政治體制

西夏政治是蕃漢聯合政治，党項族為主要統治民族，並且聯合漢族、吐蕃族、回鶻族共同統治。皇族注意與党項貴族的關係，以通婚與權力分享攏絡，而母黨「貴寵用事」。這些都使皇族與母黨、党項貴族之間時常發生衝突。西夏在前期即有像遼朝那樣的蕃漢官制，但是到中後期全面採用宋朝制度後，蕃官逐漸式微。

西夏的國家體制和統治方式深受儒家政治文化影響。官制自1038年夏景宗立國後確立，大體上學自宋朝制度。官分文武兩班，中書司、樞密司與三司（鹽鐵部、度支部與戶部）分別管理行政、軍事與財政。御史台管監察、開封府管理首都地區的事務，其他還有翊衛司、官計司、受納司、農田司、群牧司、飛龍苑、磨勘司、文思院、番學與漢學等機構。隔年，夏景宗仿照宋朝制度設立總理庶務的尚書令，改宋朝二十四司為十六司，分理功、倉、戶、兵、法、士六曹，使西夏官制和機構已頗具規模。到夏毅宗時又增設各部尚書、侍郎、南北宣徽使及中書、學士等官。一來職官和機構愈分愈細，二來官制改革由擴充政治軍事的官職轉向擴充社會經濟文化方面的官職。

蕃官是專由党項族擔任的官職，有一說此為爵位制度。蕃官主要是為了保持党項貴族在政權中的主導地位，非党項族不能擔任，有寧令（大王）、謨寧令（天大王）、丁盧、丁弩、素齋、祖儒、呂則、樞銘等等官稱。夏景宗增設番官後，還學習遼朝與吐蕃的一些制度，如南北面官制。西夏的蕃官制度很雜亂，夏毅宗時又增設不少官職，至今仍不太清楚其官職功能，有一說蕃官只是西夏文表示的漢官官名而已。西夏文諺語也提到「衙門官員曾幾何，要數弭藥為最多」，表明党項族當官為數不少。隨著西夏皇帝越來越崇尚漢法，改蕃禮、用漢儀，蕃官系統逐漸式微。夏崇宗以後，蕃官就在也沒出現在相關文獻中。

關於法律方面，因為西夏舊律有不明疑礙處，夏仁宗在「尚文重法」的主張下頒布《天盛改舊新定律令》，又稱《天盛律令》、《開盛律令》。主要由北王兼中書令嵬名地暴與中書、樞密院宰輔要員及中興府、殿前司、閤門司等重要官員參與編寫。該法典參考了唐朝、宋朝的法典，並且結合本國的國情、民情和軍情，使得更加切合實際。在某些方面（如畜牧業、軍制、民俗，等等）更具有本民族的特點。

外交

西夏地理處於四戰之地，陸續要應付後唐、回鶻、吐蕃、宋朝、遼朝、金朝、西遼與蒙古的威脅與戰爭，所以外交是夏廷十分重視的環節。外交策略主要是聯合或依附強者，並且攻擊弱者、以戰求和。這些策略使自己得以不斷延續、發展。

西夏早在夏州政權時期（定難軍）就奉唐朝、五代諸國與北宋為宗主國，以維持自身勢力。後來北宋併吞夏州政權，李繼遷舉兵再起。此時他採取事奉遼朝、連遼抗宋的策略，多次擊退宋軍，並且擴張勢力。並且於990年被遼朝遼聖宗冊封為夏國王。到李德明時，為了鞏固新領地，對北宋和談，於1006年簽署景德和議。然而李德明依舊維持與遼朝的關係。除了應付遼、宋的戰事外，為了稱霸河西、先後攻滅甘州回鶻、沙洲歸義軍，對抗吐蕃六穀部、唃廝囉國等，與西州回鶻為鄰。

夏景宗時正式稱帝建國，自稱邦泥定國，稱男不稱臣，並且多次入侵宋朝邊疆。宋仁宗不滿西夏獨立，派兵攻打之，至此宋夏戰爭爆發。夏景宗在三大戰役（三川口之戰、好水川之戰與定川寨之戰）戰勝宋朝後，雙方於1044年簽訂慶曆和約。宋朝給予「夏國主」名號，西夏皇帝對宋朝稱臣，但實際上西夏皇帝在國內仍以君王自稱。宋朝給與金錢、茶葉等大量物資。西夏雖然擊敗北宋，但惹來遼朝不滿，雙方發生三次戰爭（賀蘭山之戰），最後以西夏稱臣作收。而後北宋的宋神宗為了擊敗西夏，趁西夏內亂之際發動五路伐夏與永樂城之戰，最後都以西夏戰勝作收。然而西夏國力漸衰，橫山地區又被北宋占領，此後有賴遼朝周旋方能穩定宋、遼、西夏三國鼎立的關係。

金朝崛起後滅遼朝與北宋，西夏為了自保，放棄遼夏同盟，臣服於金朝。金朝包圍西夏的東方與南方，掌握西夏的經濟力，所以夏廷對金朝不敢輕舉妄動，最多隻有小規模的戰事。蒙古帝國崛起後，多次入侵西夏，破壞金夏同盟。夏襄宗與夏神宗改採取聯蒙攻金的策略，多次與金朝發生戰爭，然而此為錯誤的方針。到夏獻宗時才改連金抗蒙，但不久就在蒙夏戰爭中於1227年亡國。金史稱西夏「立國二百餘年，抗衡遼、金、宋三國，偭鄉無常，視三國之勢強弱以為異同焉。」。

西夏對於回鶻、吐蕃等少數民族採取懷柔與招撫的方式，似乎比宋朝還要好。例如西使城（今甘肅定西西南）吐蕃首領禹藏花麻不願降宋朝，又受到宋軍王韶的攻掠。夏毅宗立即派兵支援，將宗女嫁給他。禹藏花麻遂把西使城及蘭州獻給西夏。

軍事制度

軍事制度是以党項部落兵制為基礎，加入宋朝制度而改良。西夏是以戰立國的國家，軍隊是賴以維生的基礎。所以實行全民皆兵的制度，平時生產，戰時作戰，軍事與社會經濟合為一。除了給予軍官和正軍很少的軍事裝備之外，其餘作戰一律自帶糧食。最小單位是「抄」，每抄由三人組成，主力一人，輔主一人，負擔一人。樞密院是西夏最高的軍事統御機構，下設諸司。指揮系統分別是統軍、行主、佐將、首領、佐首領、小首領。全國軍隊分成中央軍與地方軍等兩個系統。軍事佈防以賀蘭山、興慶府與靈州為三角防線，成為西夏作戰的核心。當大敵逼近時，邊防軍迅速回京助守；邊將吃緊時，主力軍立即機動支援，軍隊調動十分靈活。作戰時有利則進，不利則退。由於地形以沙漠、山嶽為主，所以夏軍擅長誘敵設伏、斷敵糧道、集中兵力作運動戰，所以時常能以少擊多。

中央軍分為擒生軍、強弩軍、衛戍軍、侍衛軍、潑喜、鐵鷂子、步跋子、撞令郎與水軍等。擒生軍人數約十萬，主要任務是在作戰中擄掠生口作奴隸，相當遼軍的「打草穀騎」，不擔負決戰任務。夏崇宗時期建立強弩軍，為西夏特種部隊，配備強弩和標牌。衛戍軍人數約兩萬五千，部屬在興慶府周圍地區，裝備精良，所配置的副兵多達七萬，是夏軍的主力部隊。侍衛軍又號「御園內六班直」，人數約五千，分為十部，是由豪族子弟中選拔善於騎射者組成的一支衛戍部隊，負責保衛皇帝安全，分三番宿衛，佩戴銅製腰牌。潑喜約兩百人，是西夏的砲兵，掌握火蔟黎的技術，又能在駱駝上架設「旋風炮」拋射石彈。由於由騎兵施放，十分靈活。鐵鷂子早期約三百人，後擴充至萬人，是西夏的重甲騎兵，具有機動靈活的特點，在平地作戰具有威力，時常隨皇帝出入作戰。步跋子，西夏的步兵，擅長山區作戰，由橫山等山間部落的丁壯組成。時常與鐵鷂子聯合突擊敵軍。撞令郎，由俘獲的漢族士兵擔任，作為戰事的砲灰，減少西夏軍人的損失。西夏在黃河沿岸的軍事要地配備有一定數量的水軍，時常渡過黃河刺探軍情，抓捕俘虜等。

地方軍部分，夏景宗將全國軍區分為左廂、右廂與十二監軍司，共有左廂神勇軍司駐銀川彌陀洞（今陝西榆林市東）、祥祐軍司駐石州、嘉寧軍司駐宥州、靜塞軍司駐韋州、西壽保泰軍司駐柔狼山北（今甘肅白銀市平川區）、卓囉和南軍司駐蘭州黃河北岸喀羅川（今甘肅永登）、右廂朝順軍司駐賀蘭山克夷門（今寧夏石嘴山區）、甘州甘肅軍司駐甘州刪丹縣故地、瓜州西平軍司駐瓜州、黑水鎮燕軍司駐居延海黑水城（內蒙古額濟納旗）、白馬強鎮軍司駐婁博貝（內蒙古阿拉善左旗吉蘭泰鎮）、黑山威福軍司駐陰山（內蒙古烏拉特中旗）。全盛時期「諸軍兵總計五十餘萬」，軍兵種主要是騎兵和步兵兩種。每一監軍司都仿宋制立有軍名，設有都統軍、副統軍和監軍司各一員，由皇帝任命貴族擔任。下設指揮使、教練使及左右侍禁官等數十員，由党項人和漢人分任。

人口

由於沒有專門記錄西夏人口的史書，使得西夏人口的統計十分模糊，現今史學界也沒有一個統一的數據。然而西夏採取全民皆兵的制度，可以由兵力數量去類推人口量。目前認為人口數的下限不低於三十萬戶，上限不超過兩百萬。據《宋史》記載，西夏具有五十萬大軍，中間相差十幾萬。今日一種論點為西夏軍具有三十七萬，並在《東都事略·西夏傳》找到「曩宵有兵十五萬八千五百人」的記載，認為此差距是指党項族的西夏軍。另一種論點是將西夏地方軍五十餘萬人加上中央軍約十九萬人，總共約七十萬左右。由於西夏採取全民皆兵的制度，人口數推算是二百萬至三百萬左右。然而還有一派論點認為此數據過於誇張，他們根據《續資治通鑒長編》與《隆平集》的記載，西夏兵力約在十五萬至十八萬，總戶數約三十萬左右。

關於西夏人口的變化，各家說法不同。根據《中國人口史》趙文林與謝淑君的版本推算，西夏人口峰值在1038年，243萬人，後因西夏和遼朝、北宋陸續發生戰爭而不斷減少，戰爭停止後又緩慢回升。1069年，西夏建國後的人口峰值，230萬人，後又因為戰爭不斷減少。最後在1131年至1210年年間，人口一直維持在120萬左右。而《中國人口發展史》葛劍雄的版本推算，西夏人口的峰值在夏景宗超過300萬。1127年後，西夏人口一直未超過300萬。根據《中國人口史》（第三卷）遼宋金元時期，吳松弟的版本推算，西夏人口的峰值在1100年夏崇宗時期，大約300萬人。西夏人口密度低於北宋各路與唐朝各道的人口密度，然而比唐朝的隴右道高。這是因為西夏領土大多是由沙漠組成，適居範圍不大，在加上西夏採取全民皆兵的制度，因連年戰事不斷，人口消耗不少。

西夏是一個多民族的朝代，其主要民族有党項族、漢族、回鶻族與吐蕃族等。西夏人大都身材修長高大，充分表現出党項羌人粗獷、剽悍、豪爽的民族性格。社會等級分明，以日常服飾禮儀區分。皇帝、文官與武官的服裝均有規定標準，平民百姓只准穿青綠色衣服，貴賤等級分明。冠飾也是區分等級的依據之一，皇帝氈冠、皇后龍鳳冠、命婦花杈冠，文官襆頭、武官還有各種頭冠樣式。

經濟

西夏的經濟是以畜牧業為基礎，主要以牛、羊、馬和駱駝為大宗。農產品主要有大麥、稻、蓽豆和青稞等物。藥材和一部分手工製品也特別有名。西夏在冶煉、採鹽製鹽、磚瓦、陶瓷、紡織、造紙、印刷、釀造、金銀木器製作等手工業生產也都具有一定的規模和水平。慶曆和議後，宋廷設置榷場，恢復雙方貿易往來，西夏的手工業生產和商業貿易迅速發展。夏崇宗與夏仁宗時期，西夏經濟大大的發展，四方的物品會集到首都興慶，進入西夏經濟最鼎盛的時期。

農業與畜牧業

党項族是遊牧民族，其農業較畜牧業晚發展，農牧並重是西夏社會經濟的特色。李繼遷時期陸續領有河套與河西走廊地區如靈州（今寧夏吳忠市）、興慶（今寧夏銀川）、涼州（今甘肅武威）和瓜州（今甘肅安西）等地後，由於這些地區豐饒五穀，「地饒五穀，尤宜稻麥」。其中興靈地區與橫山地區為西夏糧食的主要產地，其產量還可以用來救濟災民，而橫山地區的糧食時常提供給伐宋夏軍使用。西夏主要的農產品有大麥、稻、蓽豆和青稞等物，當發生戰亂或天災時只能以大麥、蓽豆、青麻子等物充飢，並且等待自靈夏所運來的糧食。藥材中比較有名的有大黃、枸杞與甘草，皆是商人極力採購的重點商品之一。其他還有麝臍、羱羚角、柴胡、蓯蓉、紅花和蜜蠟等。党項族向漢族學習比較先進的耕種技術，已普遍使用鐵製農具和牛耕。西夏領地以沙漠居多，水源得來不易，所以十分重視水利設施。西夏古渠主要分布在興州和靈州，其中以興州的漢源渠和唐徠渠最有名。夏景宗時興修從今青銅峽至平羅的灌渠，世稱「昊王渠」或「李王渠」。在甘州、涼州一帶，則利用祁連山雪水，疏浚河渠，引水灌田。在這些水源中，又以甘州境內的黑水最為著名。橫山地區則以無定河、白馬川等等為水源。夏仁宗時期修訂的法典《天盛改舊新定律令》中，鼓勵人民開墾荒地，並規定水利灌溉事宜。

西夏的畜牧業十分發達，夏廷還設立群牧司以專屬管理。牧區分布在橫山以北和河西走廊地區，重要的牧區有夏州（今陝西靖邊北白城子）、綏州（今綏德）、銀州（今米脂西北）、鹽州（今寧夏鹽池北）與宥州（今陝西定邊東）諸州，還有鄂爾多斯高原、阿拉善和額濟納草原及河西走廊草原，都是興盛的牧區。畜類主要以牛、羊、馬和駱駝為大宗，其他還有驢、騾、豬等。馬匹可做軍事與生產用途，並且是對外的重點商品與貢品，以「党項馬」最有名，早在西夏建國以前就已名滿天下，晚唐詩人元稹有詩云：「北買党項馬，西擒吐蕃鸚。 炎洲布火浣，蜀地錦織成。」。駱駝主要產於阿拉善和額濟納地區，是高原和沙漠地區的重要運輸工具。在西夏辭書《文海》中對牲畜的研究十分細緻，有關餵養、疾病、生產與品種的區分都有詳細的說明，表現出西夏人對畜牧的經驗十分豐富。除畜牧業外，狩獵業也十分興盛，主要有兔鶻、沙狐皮、犬、馬等。其規模不小，例如對遼朝的貢品中，即有沙狐皮一千張。狩獵業在西夏中後期時仍然興盛，受西夏大臣所重視，西夏軍隊也時常以狩獵為軍事訓練或演習。

手工業

西夏手工業分官營民營兩種，主要以官營為主。其生產目的主要是供西夏貴族使用，其次則是生產外銷。手工業門比較齊全，夏仁宗修訂的法典《天盛改舊新定律令·司序行文門》中即分類詳細。手工業以紡織、冶煉、金銀、木器製作、採鹽、釀造、陶瓷、建築、磚瓦等為主，兵器製造也較為發達。

採鹽

西夏的青鹽是宋夏邊界人民最喜歡的商品，也是西夏重要的財源之一。主要產地有鹽州（今寧夏鹽池北）的烏池、白池、瓦池與細項池，河西走廊和西安州（今寧夏海原西）的鹽州與鹽山，靈州（今寧夏吳忠市）的溫泉池等等老井。所出產的青鹽味甘價賤，比宋朝的河東解鹽更具歡迎，另外西安州的鹼隈川還產白鹽、紅鹽，只是質量不如青鹽。西夏青白鹽除了供西夏人民食用外，主要用于同宋朝、遼朝、金朝進行官方貿易，其中運往宋關中地區最多，並以此換回大批糧食。宋廷為此禁止西夏進口青鹽，宋人只能透過走私進口，謀取暴利。

煉鐵

西夏礦產比較豐富，所以其兵器製造業，如神臂弓、旋風炮以及勁弩不能射入的冷鍛鎧甲均為世人稱道，特別值得一提的是「夏國劍」，鋒利無比，貴重一時，當時就為宋人所珍視。

皮毛及氈毯業

西夏的氈毯是外銷的名貴商品，其中以白駱駝毛製成的白氈於《馬可波羅遊記》記載有「為世界最良之氈」的美稱。

印刷業

西夏印刷業十分發達，西夏人為了吸收漢族文化，並且維護自己的文化，用西夏文、漢文兩種文字雕印書籍。還有一些書籍以古藏文印刷，如在西夏黑水城發現的一批藏文文獻，共有60多個編號，近300頁，是迄今發現的世界最早藏文木刻本。其中包括佛教文獻和世俗文獻，其中在以古藏文印刷的《頂髻尊勝佛母陀羅尼功德依經攝略》之一頁有印度高僧拶也阿難陀的名字，他被西夏皇室封為大波密坦、五明顯密國師，有功德司正的職務，可証明該印刷品在西夏時期刻印。

為了發展印刷業，夏廷還設置刻字司以專司出版，另外私人和學校也可能刻印書籍。刻書種類繁多，有佛經、漢學經典、文學詩書、音韻、卜筮咒文、醫學技術等等書籍，其中以佛經數量最多。如1189年夏仁宗就在大度民寺作大法會，散發蕃漢《觀彌勒上升兜率天經》十萬卷，漢《金剛普賢行誦經》、《觀音經》等五萬卷。賀蘭山拜寺口方塔廢墟中出土的西夏文《吉祥遍至口和本續》是目前世界上發現的最早的木活字印刷品，印刷時間不晚于12世紀下半葉；1987年甘肅武威亥母洞的發掘的西夏文泥活字排印的《維摩詰所說經下卷》，印製時間約為公元12世紀前期，是現存世界上最早的泥活字印本。

陶瓷業

• 參見科技

党項族自唐中期世居陝北銀夏五州之地，接觸到了陶瓷技術。其陶瓷技術，受到耀州窯（陝西渭北高原一帶）、磁州窯影響頗深，以興慶府和西平府附近的磁窯堡、涼州塔兒灣一帶為生產中心，賀蘭山插旗溝、寧夏中衛老窯溝、內蒙伊克昭盟等地也有西夏窯址。從考古出土的陶瓷看，西夏燒制的瓷器以實用器為多，大多以扁壺、經瓶、罐、白瓷碗、白瓷盤為主。其瓷器技術上比不上宋瓷，但樸實凝重，使用剔瓷手法，形成獨具一格的西夏瓷器。也有燒制空心瓷質蒺藜，內部裝填火藥，作為投擲武器炸傷敵人。

商業與貨幣

由於西夏領有絲路商業要道河西走廊，再加上國內只盛產畜牧，對於糧食、茶葉與部分手工品的需求量大，所以對外貿易是西夏經濟的命脈之一，主要分為朝貢貿易、榷場貿易與竊市（私市）。西夏國內的城市商業十分繁榮，興慶、涼州、甘州、黑水城都十分興盛。商品以糧食、布、絹帛、牲畜、肉類為大宗。西夏可以藉由掌控河西走廊以管理西域與中原的貿易往來，與北宋、遼朝、金朝、西州回鶻及吐蕃諸部有頻繁的商業貿易。由於西夏過度壟斷河西走廊，使得部分西域商人改走柴達木盆地，經鄯州（今青海西寧）沿湟水而到達宋朝的秦州（今陝西天水），史稱吐谷渾路。

西夏對中原或北亞的宗主國採取朝貢貿易，時常以駱駝或牛羊等價換取糧食、茶葉或重要物資。西夏在宋夏戰爭獲勝，於慶曆和議中，每年自宋朝獲得銀5萬兩，絹13萬匹，茶2萬斤，每年還在可以各種節日中獲得銀22000兩，絹23000匹，茶1萬斤。西夏自李繼遷叛宋附遼開始向遼朝貢，至遼天祚帝亡國，總計向遼朝貢24次。西夏也會以宋朝的茶葉與歲幣換取回鶻、吐蕃的羊隻，再轉賣給宋、遼、金等國，從中牟取暴利。由於朝貢貿易時常因為戰事而中斷，並不是很穩定。

比較大宗且穩定的貿易為榷場貿易，西夏與北宋、遼朝和金朝的邊境地帶設有共同使用的榷場進行和市，例如與宋朝制定的保安軍（今陝西志丹）、鎮戎軍（今寧夏固原）、麟州、延州等地的榷場；與遼朝在遼西京西北的天德府、雲內和雲中西北的銀甕口、過腰帶與上石楞坡等地的榷場等。在榷市中，有固定的貿易場地和牙人評定貨色等級，由雙方官府派遣的監督、稽查人員共同管理市場，徵收稅務。貿易內容以牲畜、毛織品、藥材為大宗。而「官市」以外的商品種類不受此限。金滅北宋後，由於南宋與西夏隔絕，西夏對外貿易掌握在金朝手中，經濟上不能不依賴於金朝。1141年金朝同意開放保安軍、蘭州、綏德、環州與東勝州的榷場。1172年金朝金世宗以保安軍、蘭州、綏德不產布為由關閉這些榷場，認為以紡織品換取西夏的奢侈品不划算。這使得雙方關係緊張，在夏仁宗末期戰事不斷，十年後才恢復正常貿易。最後比較大量且分散的是「竊市」（私市），也就是非正式市場與走私貿易，例如青鹽貿易即採取走私方式換取宋朝的糧食。

由於西夏商業的興盛，作為流通的貨幣也十分重要：一類是本國鑄造的西夏貨幣；另一類是從宋、金進口的貨幣。早在夏景宗時期即鑄造貨幣，各代皇帝除了夏獻宗、夏末帝之外都有鑄錢實例，夏仁宗還於1158年設立通濟監鑄錢。西夏錢幣的鑄造大都比較精美，而且書法俊逸、流暢。目前面文為西夏文的錢幣已經發現有五種，分別是「福聖寶錢」、「大安寶錢」、「貞觀寶錢」、「乾祐寶錢」以及「天慶寶錢」。

文化

西夏文化深受漢族河隴文化及吐蕃、回鶻文化的影響。並且積極吸收漢族文化與典章制度。發展儒學，宏揚佛學，形成具儒家典章制度的佛教王國。西夏起初是遊牧部落，佛教在1世紀東傳涼州刺史部以後，於該區逐漸興盛起來，在西夏建國後開始創造自己獨有的佛教藝術文化。內蒙古鄂托克旗的百眼窯石窟寺，是西夏佛教壁畫藝術的寶庫。在額濟納旗黑水城中發現的西夏文佛經、釋迦佛塔、彩塑觀音像等，是荒漠的重大發現。另外西夏也大力發展敦煌莫高窟。1036年西夏攻滅歸義軍後，占領瓜州、沙州，領有莫高窟。從夏景宗到夏仁宗，西夏皇帝多次下令修改莫高窟，使其更加增添了幾分光輝。當時莫高窟塗綠油漆，接受中原文化與畏兀兒、吐魯番風格。此外，表現西夏文化的還有西夏文，又稱蕃書。西夏設立蕃學和漢學，使西夏民族意識增強，百姓「通蕃漢字」，文化也增加了許多。值得一提，李元昊曾經頒布禿髮令，命令全國男人三天內必須禿髮，違者格殺勿論。西夏還設立蕃學和太學。史家戴錫章《西夏記》曾言：「夫西夏聲明文物，誠不能與宋相匹，然觀其制國書、厘官制、定新律、興漢學、立養賢務、置博士弟子員。尊孔子為文宣帝，彬彬乎質有其文，固未嘗不可與遼金比烈！」。

思想與教育

西夏儒學的發展是一種處在儒家影響下的官僚體制與政治文化，制度深受儒家文化影響，從李繼遷伊始至西夏末年，歷代帝王莫不學習與模仿漢制。例如李繼遷時「潛設中官，盡異羌夷之體，曲延儒士，漸行中國之風。」，李德明時 「大輦方輿，鹵薄儀衛，一如中國制。」。西夏党項世代皇親宗室，崇拜孔子，欽慕漢族文化。除了崇儒尚文，還編寫了一些融合和宣揚儒家學說的書籍，如《聖立義海》、《三才雜字》、《德行記》、《新集慈孝傳》、《新集錦合道理》、《德事要文》等。其儒學經過夏景宗、夏毅宗、夏惠宗與夏崇宗的提倡，到夏仁宗之時出現盛況。

夏景宗在建立官制的同時設立了蕃漢大學院，是西夏五個司等以外的機構，與次等司平級。分蕃大學院和漢大學院，相當于中原王朝的翰林院，簡稱為蕃學和漢學，作為文化培養的搖籃。漢學掌與宋朝往來表奏，中間書寫漢字，旁列蕃字（西夏文）；蕃學掌與吐蕃、回鶻等往來文字，以蕃字書寫，各國文字副之。由院正或學正主持，又有擇明、正習等官員，兩學院都設有博士。夏景宗時期以博學多才的野利仁榮主持蕃學以重視蕃學，並於各州蕃學裡設置教授，進行教學。

西夏大致設立了五種學校：蕃學、國學、小學、宮學、太學。西夏建立學校的目的主要是為了培養人才的需要，尊孔子為文宣帝。西夏在中後期還發展科舉制度，夏崇宗後期開始設童子科實行科舉考試，1147年夏仁宗策舉人，立唱名法，復設童子科。西夏後期基本以科舉取士選拔官吏，不論蕃漢及宗室貴族由科舉而進入仕途成為必然的途徑。

文學與文字

西夏崇尚漢文化，但漢文創作的文學作品傳世不多，大多以詩歌和諺語為主。詩歌有宮廷詩、宗教勸善詩、啟蒙詩、紀事詩與史詩等幾類。西夏詩歌有韻律，一般為對稱結構，通常是五言或七言體，也有多言體，每一詩句的音節數目不同。比較有名的有頌揚西夏文創製者野利仁榮的《大頌詩》。史詩性的作品《夏聖根讚歌》，內容多為民間傳說，遣詞造句帶有濃重的民謠色彩。其中開首三句：「黑頭石城漠水邊，赤面父塚白河上，高彌藥國在彼方」，被西夏學學者用來研究党項歷史源起。另外還有讚美重建太學的《新修太學歌》，具有宮廷詩的風格。夏崇宗重視文學，本人曾作《靈芝歌》與大臣王仁忠酬唱，傳為佳話。

西夏諺語對偶工整，結構嚴謹，字數多少不一，內容廣泛地反映了西夏社會的各種面向、並涉及百姓生產、風俗與宗教等內容。著名的西夏諺語集《新集錦合辭》，是由西夏人梁德養於1176年初編、1187年由王仁持補編，共有364條諺語。其內容有「諺語不熟不要說話」的記載，「千千諸人」、「萬萬民庶」都離不開諺語，凸顯出諺語對西夏人民的重要性。

西夏皇帝十分重視本國國史的編撰工作。斡道沖於李德明時期就掌管撰修西夏國史之職，其後代亦同。夏仁宗時設置翰林學士院，命王僉、焦景顏參照宋朝編修實錄的辦法纂修國史，負責修《李氏實錄》。1225年南院宣徽使羅世昌罷官後，撰寫《夏國世次》，可惜已失。

西夏立國前夕，夏景宗為了建立屬於本國的文字，派野利仁榮仿照漢字結構創建西夏文，於1036年頒行，又稱「國書」或「蕃書」，與周圍王朝往來表奏、文書，都使用西夏文。文字構成多採用類似漢字六書構造，但筆畫比漢字繁多。西夏文學家骨勒茂才認為西夏文和漢文的關係是「論末則殊，考本則同」。西夏文創製後，廣泛運用在歷史、法律、文學、醫學著作，鐫刻碑文，鑄造錢幣、符牌等也都使用西夏文。夏廷又設立蕃學，由野利仁榮主持，選派貴族官僚子弟翻譯漢文典籍與佛教經典等。為了翻譯漢夏文字，又有骨勒茂才於1190年所撰寫的《番漢合時掌中珠》，序言有西夏文和漢文兩種，內容相同。謂「不學番言，則豈和番人之眾；不會漢語，則豈入漢人之數。」表明本書目的在於便於西夏人和漢人互相學習對方語言，是現今研究西夏歷史的重要鑰匙。

宗教

西夏人民大致上以佛教為主要信仰，在建國之前則是以自然崇拜為主。

党項族在唐朝四川松潘地區時，就以「天」為崇拜對象。當党項族遷移到陝北之後，由自然崇拜發展到對鬼神的信仰。在建國之後，仍然崇尚多神信仰，有山神、水神、龍神、樹神、土地諸神等自然神。例如夏景宗曾「自詣西涼府祠神」。夏仁宗曾在甘州黑水河邊立黑水橋碑，祭告諸神，祈求保護橋梁，平息水患。除了崇拜鬼神，党項族還崇尚巫術，並且備受重視。党項族稱巫為「廝」，巫師被稱為「廝乩」，是溝通人和鬼神間的橋樑，主要負責驅鬼與占卜。在戰爭前實行占卜以問吉凶，於戰爭中經常施行「殺鬼招魂」的巫術。

佛教是西夏的國教，建國前後六次向宋求贖佛經，宋朝賜以《大藏經》。夏景宗在立國後，便開始用西夏文翻譯佛經。五十多年內譯出大小乘佛經820部，3579卷，滿足人民對佛教的需求。除此之外，夏景宗等歷代夏帝與太后也興建許多佛教寺廟高台寺，概括地分為興慶府—賀蘭山中心、甘州—涼州中心、敦煌—安西中心以及黑水城中心。例如有名的承天寺是應夏毅宗母后沒藏太后要求而興建，1093年更重修涼州感通塔及寺廟，隔年立「重修護國寺感通塔碑」。夏崇宗時期更在甘州建築臥佛寺。西夏朝廷大力提倡佛教，提高僧人地位，使僧人不用納稅與負擔雜役；犯罪也可減免罪刑；寺院環境也受朝廷保護。西夏後期受藏傳佛教影響的趨勢日益增大，1159年吐蕃迦瑪迦舉系教派初祖都松欽巴建立粗布寺，夏仁宗派使入藏迎奉。都松欽巴派大弟子格西藏瑣布帶經文到西夏興慶府，被夏仁宗尊為上師，並參與翻譯經文。西夏比元朝還要早設立帝師，提高藏傳佛教的地位。除帝師外，還有國師以及其它有高級職稱的僧人，在推動西夏佛教發展方面起著核心和中堅的作用。

西夏設立有僧官制度管理僧侶事務。在夏仁宗李仁孝之後，藏傳佛教發展迅速。西夏後期最突出的特點是設立帝師。帝師是西夏以及元朝最重要也是最高的師號。西夏至少在12世紀中期就設立了帝師制度。北京房山雲居寺所藏漢、藏文合璧《聖勝慧到彼岸功德寶集偈》的題款中發現了西夏的帝師賢覺帝師波羅顯勝。西夏漢文典籍《雜字·官位·第十七》中列有帝師，更確証了西夏帝師的存在。從黑水城文獻中發現的西夏帝師有兩位，除賢覺帝師外還有繼任的慧宣帝師和夏桓宗時期的大乘玄密帝師，他們都是藏族僧人，在西夏都是地位崇高，撰著了多種佛教文獻。仁宗乾祐七年（1176）立，夏仁宗所御製的西夏黑河建橋敕碑以漢文和古藏文記錄，漢文碑銘中提到：「昔賢覺聖光菩薩哀憫此河年年暴漲，飄蕩人畜，故以大慈悲，興建此橋「，其中」賢覺聖光菩薩「即」賢覺帝師波羅顯勝」，為夏仁宗的帝師。

除了佛教以外，西夏也包容其他宗教。西夏有流傳道教，例如夏景宗之子寧明就是學習道家的闢穀術而死。《文海》解釋「仙」字為「山中求道者」，「山中求長壽者」。在西夏晚期，在沙州和甘州一帶還有流傳景教和伊斯蘭教。例如《馬可波羅遊記》中記載在原西夏領土唐古忒省（唐古忒即蒙古語西夏，音Tangut），敦煌、甘州、興慶府（遊記中使用了興慶府的蒙古語名稱：額里哈牙）有部分景教和伊斯蘭教徒，此處的唐古忒省即西夏中興行省。

藝術

西夏的藝術文化十分多元且豐富，在繪畫、書法、雕刻、舞蹈與音樂都有成就。繪畫方面，以佛教繪畫流傳至今，主要呈現在石窟與寺廟壁畫等，現今以敦煌莫高窟、安西榆林窟等最為豐富。早期學習北宋風格，後來受回鶻佛教與吐蕃藏傳佛教的壁畫藝術的影響，最後形成獨特的藝術風格。在線條採用鐵線與蘭葉描為主，輔以折蘆、蓴菜條；敷彩大量使用石綠打底，使畫面呈獨具風格的冷色調的「綠壁畫」。繪畫內容分別有佛教故事與說法、供養菩薩與人像以及洞窟裝飾圖案等，以《文殊變圖》、《普賢變圖》、《水月觀音圖》與《千手千眼觀音經變圖》最為有名。此外，也可在《千手千眼觀世音像》內的《農耕圖》、《踏碓圖》、《釀酒圖》與《鍛鐵圖》中觀察到西夏社會生產和生活內容。木刻版畫方面，大多來自西夏文和漢文佛經中。在黑水城出土的大量佛畫中，有《文殊圖》、《普賢圖》、《勝三世明王曼荼羅圖》等等。內容濃抹重彩，色調深沉。而版畫《賣肉圖》和《魔鬼現世圖》，描繪生動，反映出西夏繪畫的深度。

書法在楷書多見於寫經與碑文，篆書見於碑額與官印。夏仁宗時期的翰林學士劉志直，工於書法，他用黃羊尾毫製作之筆，為時人所效法。雕塑方面十分發達，有鑄銅、石雕、磚雕、木雕、竹雕、泥塑與陶瓷等。其特點比例均衡，刀法細膩，十分寫實。泥塑以佛寺塑像為代表，多運用寫實與藝術誇張手法，刻劃現實生活的人物形象。例如夏崇宗時期修建的甘州大佛寺釋迦牟尼涅槃像、敦煌莫高窟第491窟西夏供養天女彩塑等等。其他陶瓷藝術品也是刻工精細而生動。

西夏在党項時期的樂器以琵琶、橫吹，擊缶為主，其中橫吹即竹笛。後來接受中原音樂的文化，李德明時採用宋制製樂而逐漸繁多。夏景宗建國後，革除唐宋縟節之音，「革樂之五音為一音」。1148年，夏仁宗令樂官李元儒更定音律，賜名《鼎新律》。西夏音樂十分豐富，且設有蕃漢樂人院，夏惠宗時曾招誘宋朝教坊司女子、樂人加入西夏樂院，戲曲如《劉知遠諸宮調》等也已經傳入西夏，寫本並被保留在西夏黑水城遺址中，為中國現存最早諸宮調。西夏時期的舞蹈在碑刻和石窟壁畫中留有生動的形象，富含唐宋舞蹈與蒙古舞蹈的風格。如《涼州護國寺感應塔碑》碑額兩側的線刻舞伎，舞姿對稱，裸身赤足，執巾佩瓔，於豪放中又顯出嫵媚。榆林窟第3窟西夏壁畫中的《樂舞圖》，左右相對吸腿舞狀，姿態雄健。

科技

党項人本身是遊牧民族，科技比較薄弱。割據銀夏五州時期，接觸了宋朝的技術。在西夏立國之後，吸收了宋朝和西域諸國技術加以發展，在武器鍛鍊、活字印刷方面居領先地位，在水利工程、陶瓷、冶金、畜牧、採鹽、皮毛、造紙、印刷、建築等領域都有出色表現。

天文曆法

在天文氣象方面，主要是學習宋朝的天文與曆法。西夏人設置司天監以觀察天文，並列有分析、解釋天文的「太史」「司天」和「占者」以分析天文。在骨勒茂才的《番漢合時掌中珠·天相》中有對天文星象的詳細記載。例如將天空分為青龍（東）、白虎（西）、朱雀（南）、玄武（北）等方位，每個方位設有7個星宿。在氣象方面也有詳細的分析，例如風有和風、清風、金風、朔風、黑風、旋風；雨有膏雨、穀雨、時雨、絲雨；雲有煙雲、鶴雲、拳雲、羅雲、同雲，等等。曆法方面，西夏至1004年材自北宋獲得《儀天曆》，這是西夏第一本曆書。立國後，設「大恆曆院」的機構掌管曆法的編制和頒行。西夏曆書採用番漢合璧曆書與宋朝頒賜曆書兩類，其詳細情形仍需研究。

醫學

在醫學方面，在党項族在青藏高原遊牧的時期，醫學知識十分匱乏，百姓迷信鬼神，大多向神明求醫。在立國後，積極吸收宋朝的醫學與藥學，並且出版《治療惡瘡要論》等醫學著作。並且設有「醫人院」，在政府機構中屬「中等司」。西夏人對病理的認知大多分成血脈不通、傳染、「四大不和」（地、水、火、風）等觀點，其中四大不和是緣自藏傳佛教的說法。由於西夏本身醫學不如中原的朝代，所以一些疑難病症無法醫治，只好求助於宋朝或金朝。例如夏仁宗時，權臣任得敬患病，久治不愈。所以夏仁宗派使者向金朝請求醫療支援。夏桓宗時，其母患病，也派使至金朝求醫。

陶瓷

• 磁窯堡西夏磁窯遺址

• 靈武窯址

• 武威西夏窯址

西夏具有較為發達的陶瓷工藝，技術上受北宋瓷窯磁州窯、耀州窯的影響。總體特點質樸挺拔、豪放生動，色彩多樣，明顯不同于遼金瓷器。西夏瓷器最顯著的裝飾特徵是剔刻工藝，先在上釉的器物上用刻刀劃刻出紋飾圖案，叫做「刻釉」，再用刻刀將要表現的紋飾圖案以外的釉面剔掉或刮掉，露出胎體，叫做「剔釉」。現存西夏瓷器多為殘品，完整的西夏剔刻瓷器存世不足百件

。

西夏各窯所使用的制瓷原料均為就地取材，窯址選擇靠近煤礦。原料使用與煤層共生的「高嶺石質泥岩」和「高嶺石泥岩夾矸」，把這種「高嶺石質泥岩」粉碎，然後經淘洗、沉澱，經一年左右的發酵後便可制瓷。西夏各窯大多使用煤炭燒制瓷器。扁壺、經瓶、帳鉤、四系瓶為西夏特色器型，扁壺可用四繫繩子穩定固定在馬背上。西夏重要的窯址有位于西夏興慶府附近的靈武窯址和位于西夏涼州府的武威窯址。

靈武窯址被確認為中國第一座被正式考古發掘的西夏瓷窯，被列為全國重點文物保護單位。窯址東西長度約400米，南北長度約800米，總面積達20多萬平方米，在該範圍內窯址遺蹟隨處可見。乾溝西側的斷崖上可以見到2至4米的瓷片堆積層。在1984至1986年的幾次發掘中，考古隊員共發掘出4座窯爐遺址，均位于遺址中部，其中3座為西夏所建；此外還有10座作坊遺址，其中西夏作坊8座。

此外，西夏各窯也製造大量瓷蒺藜，以及帶把手的瓷質手雷。均造型中空，裡面可填裝火藥，供士兵投擲使用，炸傷人畜。實心瓷蒺藜可放置于道路上，用于阻礙敵軍的戰馬前進。

冶鐵

西夏轄區鐵礦多，銅礦少。在冶鐵方面，出于日益發展的農業和對外戰爭的需要，西夏對冶鐵十分重視，西夏的冶鐵業有了迅速發展，冶鐵技術達到了相當高的水平。西夏政府則設立「鐵工院」、「冶金司」統轄全國的冶鐵業。設有專門的冶鐵工場，如夏州、榮山等地的冶鐵工場。李元昊時期，興慶府王宮中也設有冶鐵工場。榆林窟中西夏壁畫《鍛鐵圖》，一人坐于豎式風箱旁邊鼓風煉鐵，兩人手持鐵錘，密切配合，輪番在鐵砧上鍛打鐵製工具。兩個風箱同時工作的畫面表明當時西夏已經完成了由單衝程間歇式鼓風向雙衝程持續鼓風的轉變，當時在世界上處于領先地位。

鑄幣

西夏鑄造的錢幣，總體看來銅質精良，鑄工高超，邊廓堅挺，形制規整，字體端莊秀麗。有漢文和西夏文兩種。尤其是西夏漢文錢幣上的錢文，宋代書法特徵明顯。西夏的貞觀寶錢、元德重寶均被列為古泉五十名珍之內，在泉界倍受推崇。西夏在天盛十年前就鑄造了六種年號錢，有八個種類，近三十個大的版式，但鑄造的數量很少。西夏天盛十年（1158年），西夏「立通濟監鑄錢」，鑄造量加大，西夏錢幣鑄造十分精良，為歷代錢幣收藏家所重視，記錄于南宋《泉志》、《吉金所見錄》、《古泉匯》、《退武錢譜》。清嘉慶十年（公元1805年）金石學家劉青園在涼州發現了一批西夏窖藏古錢。劉青園將錢文和張澍發現的《重修護國寺感應塔碑》上的碑文相對照，確定了了梵字錢上的「梵字」，就是西夏文，這是金石學界首次確定西夏文錢幣。

夏國劍

西夏武器製作十分精實，其中以夏國劍最有名，在宋朝被譽為「天下第一」。北宋文學家蘇軾曾請晁補之為其作歌，內有「試人一縷立褫魄，戲客三招森動容」，佩戴西夏劍流行于北宋上層，宋欽宗也不能免俗，隨身佩帶「夏國劍」出入宮掖。

瘊子甲

而西夏鎧甲採用冷鍛工藝，使得鎧甲甲片硬度和強度增加，厚度見效快，變得更為輕薄，俗稱「瘊子甲」，被譽稱為堅滑光瑩，非勁弩不可入，專給鐵鷂子使用。其他有名的攻城武器有名叫「對壘」的戰車、可以越壕溝而進；裝在駱駝鞍上的「旋風炮」，可以發射大石彈。

制弓

在晚唐時期，党項人的弓箭製造就很發達。唐中和元年（881年），黃巢入長安，李繼遷的高祖李思忠與李思恭一起屯兵渭河橋抵抗黃巢，李思忠立下鐵鶴為標誌，一箭射去箭的羽毛都射進鐵鶴之中，使得黃巢士兵震懾，可見党項族弓箭之強勁。西夏都城興慶府出良弓，以犛牛角製造，被中原購得，每張弓價值數百千。當時宋朝曾有人買到十數張西夏弓，作為禮物送給權臣童貫。西夏弓的名貴可見一斑。以及最厲害的「神臂弓」是一種有著巧妙機關的大型弓弩，用堅韌的山桑木為弩弓，又用堅實的檀木作弩身，麻為弦，輕巧堅勁，可以射240步至300步（375米以上），「能洞重扎」，夏崇宗時期採納大將察哥的建議，建立強弩軍。

約南宋時期傳入宋朝，據宋朝人洪邁《容齋三筆·卷十六·神臂弓》記載，南宋高宗年間，抗金名將韓世忠所製造的「克敵弓」就是「神臂弓」的仿製品，當時還有《克敵弓銘》讚頌這種弓箭的威力。清代《閱微草堂筆記》的作者紀曉嵐曾親自見到《永樂大典》上的神臂弓機關圖樣，曾經試圖複原「神臂弓」，但可惜《永樂大典》上的圖樣只是神臂弓的單個零件圖樣，沒有組合圖而複原失敗。

著名工匠

西夏工匠是當時的重要人才，受到重視。在蒙古西征期間，成吉思汗徵調大批西夏工匠製造武器和投石機、駱駝炮等攻城器械。西夏人制弓師常八斤因為善造弓箭被成吉思汗所賞識。

西夏滅亡後，工匠小丑是西夏著名制弓師，曾進獻良弓給忽必烈，忽必烈十分喜歡，親賜其名怯延兀蘭，命小丑為怯憐口行營弓匠百戶，在蒙古軍中管理「行營諸工匠」。小丑的兒子塔兒忽台繼承祖業製造弓箭，孫子闊闊出因「魁梧善射」任忽必烈近侍，後任大同路廣勝庫達魯花赤，負責管理貯藏兵器。闊闊出的兄弟朵羅台拜監察御史、大寧路總管。

君主年表

Name

The full title of the Western Xia as named by their own state is reconstructed as /*phiow¹-bjij²-lhjij-lhjij²/, which word by word denotes "white", "high", "kingdom", "great", or , "white", "high", "great", "summer", "kingdom". The corresponding Chinese name, 白高大夏國 ("White High Great Xia State"), was also used. Chinese and Japanese scholars commonly interprete the first two words as "upper reaches of the White River", which was possibly referring to the Yellow River. Kepping (1994) proposed the translation "the Kingdom of the Great Xia of the White and Lofty", and suggested that the name refers to a peak in the Helan Mountains named the "White and Lofty Mother". The region was known to the Tanguts as "mjɨ-njaa", and to the Tibetans as Minyak. Another name the Tanguts used for their state was "khjɨ-dwuu-lhjij" (萬祕國), which means the "State of Ten Thousand Secrets". "Western Xia" is the literal translation of the state's Chinese name. It is derived from its location on the western side of the Yellow River, in contrast to the Liao (916–1125) and Jin (1115–1234) dynasties on its east and the Song in the southeast.

The name Tangut is derived from an Altaic form found in the Orkhon inscriptions dated to 735, which is transcribed in Chinese as Tangwu or Tangute (Tangghut (Tangɣud) in Mongolian). Tangut was used a common name for certain tribes in the Amdo-Kokonor-Gansu region until the 19th century. The Tanguts called themselves Minag, transcribed in Chinese as Mianyao or Miyao.

History

Origins

The Tanguts originally came from the Tibet-Qinghai region. According to Chinese records, which called them the Dangxiang, the Tanguts were descended from the Western Qiang people, and occupied the steppes around Qinghai Lake and the mountains to its south.

In 608, the Tanguts helped the Sui dynasty defeat the Tuyuhun, however they were betrayed by the Sui forces, who took the chance to loot the Tanguts. In 635, they were requested to serve as guides for Emperor Taizong's campaign against Tuyuhun, but the Tang forces double crossed them in a surprise attack and seized thousands of livestock. In retaliation, the Tanguts attacked the Tang and killed thousands of their soldiers.

By the 650s, the Tanguts had left their homeland to escape pressure from the Tibetans and migrated eastward to what are now modern Shanxi and Shaanxi provinces. In 584-5 Tuoba Ningzong led the first group of Tanguts to submit to the Sui. In 628-9 another group under the leadership of Xifeng Bulai surrendered to the Tang. After the Tuyuhun were defeated in 635, the Tanguts under Tuoba Chici also surrendered. The 340,000 Tanguts were divided into 32 jimi prefectures under the control of Tangut chieftains appointed as prefects. Another wave of Tanguts entered Tang territory in 692, adding as many as 200,000 persons to the population in Lingzhou and Xiazhou. In 721-2, Tuoba Sitai, a descendant of Tuoba Chici, aided the Tang in putting down a Sogdian-led revolt in Shuofang. By the time of the An Lushan Rebellion in the 750s, the Tanguts had become the primary local power in the Ordos region in northern Shaanxi. In the 760s, the military commander, Ashina Sijian, harassed six Tangut tribes and took their camels and horses. The Tanguts fled west across the Yellow River and started working for the Tibetans as guides on raiding expeditions. In 764, the Tanguts joined the Tibetans and Uyghurs in supporting the Tang rebel Pugu Huaien. After the Tang reasserted their authority, a descendant of Tuoba Chici, Tuoba Chaoguang, was put in charge of the loyal Tanguts. The Yeli, Bali, and Bozhou clans continued to side with the Tibetans, however the Tanguts also came under Tibetan predation, and frontier settlements continued switching between Tang and Tibetan control for many years. In 806, the Acting Minister of Works, Du You, admitted that they treated the Tanguts badly:

In 814 the Tang appointed a Commissioner for Pacifying the Tanguts to Youzhou (modern Otog Banner), however this did not resolve the Tangut problem. In 820 the Tanguts were subjected to the tyranny of a local governor, Tian Jin. They retaliated by joining the Tibetans in raids on Tang garrisons. Sporadic conflict with the Tanguts lasted until the 840s when they rose in open revolt against the Tang, but the rebellion was suppressed. Eventually the Tang court was able to mollify the Tanguts by admonishing their frontier generals and replacing them with more disciplined ones. The Tanguts also fought with Uyghurs after the collapse of the Uyghur Khaganate because they both wanted to monopolize the horse trade which passed through Lingzhou.

Dingnan Jiedushi

In 873, the senior Tangut leader at Xiazhou, Tuoba Sigong, occupied Youzhou and declared himself prefect. When Chang'an fell to Huang Chao in 880, Sigong led a Chinese-Tangut army to assist Tang forces in driving out the rebels. For his service, he was granted in 881 control of Xiazhou, Youzhou, Suizhou, Yinzhou, and later also Jingbian. Together the territory was called Dingnan Jiedushi, also known as Xiasui, centered on modern Yulin, Shaanxi. After the Huang Chao rebellion's defeat in 883, Sigong was granted the dynastic surname Li and enfeoffed as "Duke of Xia". In 878, the Shatuo chieftain Li Guochang attacked the Tanguts but was repelled by a Tuyuhun intervention.

Sigong died in 886 and was succeeded by his brother Sijian. In 905 Li Keyong's independent regime allied with the Khitans, which pushed the Tanguts into an alliance with Later Liang, which awarded the Dingnan rulers with honorary titles. Sijian died in 908 and was succeeded by his adopted son Yichang, who was murdered by his officer Gao Zongyi in 909. Gao Zongyi was himself murdered by soldiers of Dingnan and was replaced by Yichang's uncle, Renfu, who was a popular officer in the army. In 910 Dingnan came under a one month siege by the forces of Qi and Jin but was able to repel the invasion with the aid of Later Liang. In 922 Renfu sent 500 horses to Luoyang, perhaps to aid the Later Liang in fighting the Shatuo. In 924 Renfu was enfeoffed as "Prince of Shuofang" by Later Tang. When Renfu died in 933, Later Tang tried to replace his son, Yichao, with a Sogdian governor, An Congjin. An Congjin besieged Xiazhou with 50,000 soldiers, but the Tanguts mounted a successful defensive by rallying the tribes and stripping the countryside of any resources. The Later Tang army was forced to retreat after three months. Despite Later Tang aggression, Yichao made peace with them by sending 50 horses as an offering.

Yichao died in 935 and was succeeded by his brother Yixing. Yixing discovered a plot by his brother, Yimin, to overthrow him in 943. Yimin fled to Chinese territory, but was returned to Xiazhou for execution. Over 200 clan members were implicated in the plot, resulting in a purge of the core ranks. Yimin's post was taken by a loyal official, Renyu. Not long afterward, Renyu was killed by the Yemu Qiang, who departed for Chinese territory. In 944 Yixing may have attacked the Liao dynasty on behalf of the Later Jin. The sources are not clear on the event. In 948 Yixin requested permission to cross the border and attack the Yemu Qiang but was refused. Instead Yixing attacked a neighboring circuit under encouragement from the rebel Li Shouzhen, but retreated upon encountering an imperial force. In 952 the Yeji people north of Qingzhou rebelled, causing the Tanguts significant difficulty. Honorary titles were given out by the Later Han to appease local commanders, including Yixing. In 960 Dingnan came under attack by Northern Han and successfully repelled invading forces. In 962 Yixing offered horses as tribute to the Song dynasty. Yixing died in 967 and was succeeded by his son, Kerui.

Kerui died in 978 and was succeeded by Jiyun. Jiyun ruled for only a year before dying in 980. His son was still an infant, so Jiyun's brother, Jipeng, assumed leadership. Jipeng did not go through the traditional channel of acquiring consent from the elders, which caused dissent among the Tangut elites. The Tangut prefect of Suizhou challenged Jipeng's succession. In 982 Jipeng fled to the Song court and surrendered control of Dingnan Jiedushi. His brother or cousin, Jiqian, did not agree to this and refused to submit to Song administration. Jiqian led a group of bandit holdouts and resisted Song control. In 984, the Song attacked his camp and captured his mother and wife, but he narrowly escaped. He rebounded from this defeat by capturing Yinzhou the next year. Along with Yinzhou, Jiqian captured large amounts of supply, allowing him to increase his following. In 986, Jiqian submitted to the Khitans and in 989, Jiqian married into Khitan nobility. Jiqian also made symbolic obeisance to the Song, but the Song remained unconvinced of his intentions. Jipeng was sent by the Song to destroy Jiqian, but he was defeated in battle on 6 May 994, and fled back to Xiazhou. Jiqian sent tribute on 9 September as well as his younger brother on 1 October to the Song court. Emperor Taizong of Song was receptive of these gestures, but Jiqian returned to raiding Song territory the next year. In April 996, Taizong sent troops to suppress Jiqian, who raided Lingzhou in May and again in November 997. For a brief period after 998, Jiqian accepted Song suzerainty, until the fall of 1001 when he began raiding again. Jiqian died on 6 January 1004 from an arrow wound. His son and successor, Deming, proved to be more amicable towards the Song than his predecessor.

Jingzong (1038–1048)

Deming sent tribute missions to both the Liao dynasty and the Song dynasty. At the same time he expanded Tangut territory to the west. In 1028, he sent his son Yuanhao to conquer the Ganzhou Uyghur Kingdom. Two years later the Guiyi Circuit surrendered to the Tanguts. Yuanhao invaded the Qinghai region as well but was repelled by the newly risen Tibetan kingdom of Tsongkha. In 1032, Yuanhao annexed the Tibetan confederation of Xiliangfu, and soon after his father died, leaving him ruler of the Tangut state.

Upon his father's death, Yuanhao adopted the Tangut surname of Weiming (Tangut: Nweimi) for his clan. He levied all able bodied men between 15 and 60 years of age, providing him with a 150,000 strong army. By 1036, he had annexed both the Ganzhou Uyghur Kingdom and the Guiyi Circuit to his west. In the same year, the Tangut script was disseminated for use in the Tangut government and translations of Chinese and Tibetan works began at once. The script's creation is attributed to Yeli Renrong and work on it likely began during the reign of Deming.

In 1038, Yuanhao declared himself emperor (wu zu or Blue Son of Heaven), posthumously Emperor Jingzong of Western Xia, of the Great Xia with his capital at Xingqing in modern Yinchuan. Jingzong expanded the bureaucratic apparatus mirroring Chinese institutional practices. A Secretariat (Zhongshu sheng), Bureau of Military Affairs (Shumi yuan), Finance Office (San si), Censorate (Yushi tai), and 16 bureaus (shiliu si) under the supervision of a chancellor (shangshu ling) were created. Jingzong enacted a head shaving decree that ordered all his countrymen to shave the top of their heads so that if within three days, someone had not followed his order, they were allowed to be killed.

In response, the Song dynasty offered to bestow ranks on the Tanguts, which Jingzong rejected. The Song then cut off border trade and put a bounty on his head. The Xia's chief military leader, Weiming Shanyu, also fled to seek asylum with the Song, however he was executed at Youzhou. What ensued was a prolonged war with the Song dynasty which resulted in several victories at great cost to the Xia economy.

In the winter of 1039–1040, Jingzong laid siege to Yanzhou (now Yan'an) with over 100,000 troops. The prefect of Yanzhou, Fan Yong, gave contradictory orders to his military deputy, Liu Ping, making him move his forces (9,000) in random directions until they were defeated by Xia forces (50,000) at Sanchuan Pass. Liu Ping was taken captive. Despite the defenders' mediocre performance, Jingzong was forced to lift the siege and retreat to a ring of forts overlooking Yanzhou, when heavy winter snows set in. A Song army of 30,000 returned later that winter under the command of Ren Fu. They were ambushed at Haoshuichuan and annihilated. Despite such victories, Jingzong failed to make any headway against Song fortifications, garrisoned by 200,000 troops on rotation from the capital, and remained unable to seize any territory. In 1042, Jingzong advanced south and surrounded the fort of Dingchuan. The defending commander Ge Huaimin lost his nerve and decided to run, abandoning his troops to be slaughtered. Again, Jingzong failed to gain significant territory. Half his soldiers had died from attrition and after two years, Xia could no longer support his military endeavors. Tangut forces began suffering small defeats, being turned back by Song forces at Weizhou and Linzhou.

The Liao dynasty took advantage of the Song's dire predicaments by increasing annual tribute payments by 100,000 units of silk and silver (each). The Song appealed to the Liao for help, and as a result, Emperor Xingzong of Liao invaded Western Xia with a force of 100,000 in 1044. Liao forces enjoyed an initial victory but failed to take the Xia capital and were brutally mauled by Jingzong's defenders. According to Song spies, there was a succession of carts bearing Liao dead across the desert. Having exhausted his resources, Jingzong made peace with the Song, who recognized him as the ruler of Xia lands and agreed to pay an annual tribute of 250,000 units of silk, silver, and tea.

Toward the end of the war, Jingzong took the intended bride of his son, Lady Moyi, as his concubine. Jingzong's designated heir, Ninglingge, was the son of the Yeli empress, whose uncle Yeli Wangrong was concerned about the development. Ninglingge was thus arranged to marry the daughter of Wangrong, who planned to kill the emperor on the eve of the wedding. The plot leaked and Wangrong as well as four other Yeli conspirators were executed. The Yeli empress was demoted and Lady Moyi was installed in her place. Another concubine, Lady Mocang, bore the emperor a male child in 1047, named Liangzuo, who was raised by Mocang Epang. The disinherited heir apparent stabbed Jingzong in the nose and fled to Mocang Epang's residence where he was arrested and executed. Jingzong died the next day on 19 January 1048 at the age of 44.

Yizong (1048–1068)

After Emperor Jingzong of Western Xia died in 1048, a council of elders selected his cousin as the new ruler. Mocang Epang objected on grounds of primogeniture and put forth his nephew, the son of Jingzong and Lady Mocang, as candidate. No dissent was forthcoming, so the two-year-old Liangzuo became emperor, posthumously Emperor Yizong of Western Xia. In 1056 the empress dowager died. In 1061 Yizong eliminated Mocang Epang and married Lady Liang, formerly the wife of Epang's son. Yizong appointed Lady Liang's brother, Liang Yimai, as palace minister. This would start two generations of Liang dominance in Xia. During Yizong's reign, he attempted to enact more Chinese forms of governance by replacing Tangut rites with Chinese court ritual and dress, which was opposed by the Liang faction that favored Tangut forms. At the same time, Song and Xia emissaries regularly exchanged insults.

In 1064, Yizong raided the Song dynasty. In the fall of 1066, he mounted two more raids and in September, an attack on Qingzhou was launched. The Tangut forces destroyed several fortified settlements. Song forces were surrounded for three days before cavalry reinforcements arrived. Yizong was wounded by a crossbow and forced to retreat. Tangut forces attempted another raid later on but failed, and a night attack by Song forces scattered the Tangut army. Yizong regrouped at Qingtang and launched another attack on Qingzhou in December but withdrew after threats by Emperor Yingzong of Song to escalate the conflict. The next year, the Song commander Chong E attacked and captured Suizhou.

Yizong died in January 1068, presumably from his wounds, at the age of 20.

Huizong (1068–1086)

The seven-year-old Bingchang, posthumously Emperor Huizong of Western Xia, succeeded his father, Emperor Yizong of Western Xia. Huizong's reign began with an inconclusive war with the Song dynasty in 1070-1 over Suizhou. In 1072 Huizong's sister was married to Linbuzhi (Rinpoche), the son of the Tsongkha ruler, Dongzhan. These events occurred under the regency of the Empress Dowager Liang and her brother, Liang Yimai. Huizong was married to one of Yimai's daughters to ensure the continued control of the Liang over the imperial Weiming clan. In 1080 Huizong rebelled against his mother's dominance by discarding with Tangut ritual in favor of Chinese ceremonies. A year later a plot by Huizong and his concubine, Li Qing, to turn over the Xia's southern territory to the Song was uncovered. Li Qing was executed and Huizong was imprisoned. The emperor's loyalists immediately rallied their forces to oppose Liang rule while Yimai tried to in vain to summon them with the imperial silver paiza.

In 1081, the Song dynasty launched a five-pronged attack on the Xia. After initial victories, Song forces failed to take the capital of Xia, Xingqing, and remained on the defensive for the next three years. Xia counterattacks also experienced initial success before failing to take Lanzhou multiple times. In 1085, the war ended with the death of Emperor Shenzong of Song.

In the summer of 1081, the five Song armies invaded Western Xia. Chong E defeated a Xia army, killing 8,000. In October, Li Xian took Lanzhou. On 15 October, Liu Changzuo's 50,000 strong army met a Xia force of 30,000 led by the Empress Regent Liang's brother. Liu's commanders advised him to take a defensive position, but he refused, and led a contingent of shield warriors with two ranks of crossbowmen and cavalry behind, with himself leading at the front with two shields. The battle lasted for several hours before the Xia forces retreated, suffering 2,700 casualties. Afterwards, Liu captured a large supply of millet at the town of Mingsha, and headed towards Lingzhou. Liu's vanguard attacked the town's gate before the defenders had a chance to close it, dealing several hundred casualties, and seizing more than 1,000 cattle before retreating. Liu wanted Gao Zunyu to help him take Lingzhou, but Gao refused. Then Liu suggested they take the Xia capital instead, to which Gao also refused, and instead took it as a slight that he could not take Lingzhou. Gao relayed his version of events to the Song court, then had Liu removed from command, merging the two forces.

By November, the Xia had abandoned the middle of the Ordos plateau, losing Xiazhou. On 20 November, Wang Zhongzheng took Youzhou and slaughtered its inhabitants. At this point Wang became concerned that he would run out of supplies and quarreled with Chong E over provisions. He also forbade his troops from cooking their meals because he feared it would alert Xia raiders of their position. His troops became ill from their uncooked food, started to starve, and came under attack by enemy cavalry anyways. Wang was ordered to withdraw while Chong E covered his retreat. Wang lost 20,000 men.

On 8 December, Gao Zunyu decided to attack Lingzhou, only to realize he had forgotten to bring any siege equipment, and there were not enough trees around for their construction. Gao took out his frustration on Liu Changzuo, who he tried to have executed. Liu's troops were on the verge of mutiny before Fan Chuncui, a Circuit judge, convinced Gao to reconcile with Liu. On 21 December, Xia forces breached the dikes along the Yellow River and flooded the camps of the two besieging Song armies, forcing them to retreat. Xia harassment turned the retreat into a rout.

By the end of 1081, only Chong E remained in active command. In September 1082, the Xia counterattacked with a 300,000 strong army, laying siege to Yongle, a fortress town west of Mizhi. The Xia sent out cavalry to prevent Song relief attempts. The defending commander, Xu Xi, deployed his troops outside the town gates but refused to attack the enemy troops while they forded the river. Then he refused to let his troops in when the Tangut Iron Hawk cavalry attacked, decimating the defending army. With the capture of Yongle, the Song lost 17,300 troops.

In March 1083, Xia forces attacked Lanzhou. The defending commander, Wang Wenyu, led a small contingent out at night and made a surprise attack on the Xia encampment, forcing them to retreat. The Tanguts made two more attempts to take Lanzhou in April and May but failed on both accounts. Their simultaneous attack on Linzhou also failed. After multiple defeats, the Xia offered peace demands to the Song, which they refused. In January 1084, Xia forces made a last attempt to take Lanzhou. The siege lasted for 10 days before the Tangut army ran out of supplies and was forced to retreat.

The war ended in 1085 with the death of Emperor Shenzong in April. In exchange for 100 Chinese prisoners, the Song returned four of the six captured towns. Hostilities between the Song and Xia would flare up again five years later, and conflict would continue sporadically until the Song lost Kaifeng in the Jingkang incident of 1127.

Huizong was returned to his throne in 1083. Liang Yimai died in 1085 and his son, Liang Qipu, succeeded his position as chief minister. The Empress Dowager Liang also died later that year. In 1086 Huizong passed away at the age of 26.

Chongzong (1086–1139)

The three-year-old Qianshun succeeded his father, Emperor Huizong of Western Xia, as emperor, posthumously Emperor Chongzong of Western Xia. His mother, the new Empress Dowager Liang, the younger sister of Liang Qipu, ruled as regent. The Song dynasty continued to campaign against the Xia in 1091 and 1093. In 1094, Rende Baozhuang and Weiming Awu slew Liang Qipu and exterminated his clan. In 1096 the Song stopped paying tribute to the Xia and the next year, launched an "advance and fortify" campaign centered on guarding key locations along river valleys and mountains to erode the Xia position. From 1097 to 1099, the Song army constructed 40 fortifications across the Ordos plateau. In 1098, the Empress Regent Liang sent a 100,000 strong army to recapture Pingxia. The Tangut army was completely defeated in their attempt to dislodge the Song from their high ground position, and their generals Weiming Amai and Meiledubu were both captured. Empress Dowager Liang died in 1099, apparently poisoned by assassins from the Liao dynasty. At the same time, the Tanguts were also involved in a war with the Zubu to their north.

In 1103, the Song annexed Tsongkha and spent the following year weeding out native resistance. The expansion of Song territory threatened the Xia's southern border, resulting in Tangut incursions in 1104 and 1105. Eventually the Xia launched an all out attack on Lanzhou and Qingtang. However, after the Advance and Fortify campaign of 1097–1099, Xia forces were no longer able to defeat Song positions. Failing to take major cities, the Tangut forces went on a rampage, killing tens of thousands of local civilians. The next year, Chongzong made peace with the Song, but was unable to clearly demarcate their borders, leading to another war in 1113.

In 1113, the Xia started building fortifications in disputed territory with the Song, and took the Qingtang region. Incensed at this provocation, Emperor Huizong of Song dispatched Tong Guan to evict the Tanguts. In 1115, 150,000 troops under the command of Liu Fa penetrated deep into Xia territory and slaughtered the Tangut garrison at Gugulong. Meanwhile, Wang Hou and Liu Chongwu attacked the newly built Tangut fortress of Zangdihe. The siege ended in failure and the death of half the invasion force. Wang bribed Tong to keep the number of casualties a secret from the emperor. The next year, Liu Fa and Liu Chongwu took a walled Tangut city called Rendequan. Another 100,000 troops were sent against Zangdihe and succeeded in taking the fortress. The Xia made a successful counterattack in the winter of 1116–1117. Despite piling casualties on the Song side, Tong was adamant about eradicating the Xia once and for all. He gave orders for Liu Fa to lead 200,000 into the heart of the Xia empire, aiming straight at the capital region. It quickly became apparent that this was a suicide mission. The Song army was met outside the city by an even larger Tangut army led by the Xia prince, Chage. The Tangut army surrounded the Song forces, killing half of them, with the remaining falling back during the night. The Tanguts pursued the Song and defeated them again the next day. Liu was beheaded. A ceasefire was called in 1119 and Huizong issued an apology to Xia.

In 1122, the Jürchen Jin dynasty took the Southern Capital of the Liao dynasty, and the remaining Khitans fled in two groups to the west. One group led by Xiao Gan fled to Xia where they set up a short lived Xi dynasty that lasted only five months before Gan died at the hands of his own troops. The other group, led by Yelü Dashi, joined Emperor Tianzuo of Liao at the Xia border. In the early summer of 1123, Dashi was captured by the Jin and forced to lead them to Tianzuo's camp, where the entire imperial family except for Tianzuo and one son were captured. Tianzuo sought refuge with Chongzong, who while initially receptive, changed his mind after warnings from the Jurchens and declared himself a vassal of Jin in 1124.

Domestically the reign of Chongzong saw a formal consolidation of the relationship between the imperial court and the great clans, whose positions were assured in legal documents. After his mother's death in 1099, Chongzong stripped the Rende clan of its military power. Rende Baozhuang was demoted. Chongzong's brother, Chage, was given command of the Tangut army, which he led to many victories against the Song. A state school was established with 300 students supported by government stipends. A "civilian" faction arose under the leadership of the imperial Prince Weiming Renzhong, who often denounced Chage for corruption and abuse of power. Chongzong shuffled appointments to play the two factions against each other. In 1105, Chongzong married a Liao princess, who along with her son, apparently died of heartbreak in 1125 when the Khitan emperor was captured by the Jurchens. In 1138, the penultimate year of his reign, Chongzong took the daughter of Ren Dejing as his empress.

Chongzong died at the age of 56 in the summer of 1139.

Renzong (1139–1193)

The 16-year-old Renxiao succeeded his father, Emperor Chongzong of Western Xia, as emperor, posthumously Emperor Renzong of Western Xia. His mother was the Chinese concubine, Lady Cao.

In 1140 a group of Khitan exiles led by Xiao Heda rebelled. The Xia forces under Ren Dejing crushed them. Renzong wanted to reward Ren with a palace appointment but his councilor, Weiming Renzhong, convinced him to keep him as a field commander.

In 1142-3 famine and earthquake caused unrest in Xiazhou. Renzong responded with tax remissions and relief measures.

In 1144 Renzong decreed the establishment of schools throughout the country and a secondary school opened for imperial scions aged seven to fifteen. A Superior School of Chinese Learning was opened the following year and Confucian temples were built throughout the land. In 1147 imperial examinations were instituted, although Tangut records do discuss using them for selection of officials. The Tangut law code only discusses inheritance of office and rank. In 1148 an Inner Academy was established and staffed with renowned scholars. Renzong also greatly patronized Buddhist learning. The majority of the Tangut Tripitaka was completed during his reign. In 1189, the 50th anniversary of Renzong's accession, 100,000 copies of the "Sutra on the visualization of the Maitreya Bodhisattva's ascent and rebirth in Tushita Heaven" (Guan Mile pusa shang sheng Toushuai tian jing) was printed and distributed in both Chinese and Tangut, and 50,000 copies of other sutras were also printed.

After the deaths of Renzhong and Chage in 1156, Ren Dejing rose through the ranks and became very powerful. In 1160 he obtained the noble title of Chu, the first Chinese to do so in the Tangut state. Ren tried to have the schools shut down and called them useless Chinese institutions wasting resources on parasitic scholars. It is unknown how the emperor responded but the schools were not closed. In 1161 the emperor opened a Hanlin Academy to compile the Xia historical records.

In 1161-2 the Tanguts briefly occupied territory of both the Jurchen Jin dynasty and Song dynasty during the Jin–Song Wars.

From 1165 to 1170, Ren Dejing tried to establish his own semi-autonomous realm, and in the process meddled in the affairs of the Zhuanglang tribes, who lived in the border region of the Tao River valley. He also tried to enlist the help of the Jurchens, but they refused his overtures. Ren started construction of fortifications along the Jin border. In 1170 Ren pressured Renzong to grant him the eastern half of the realm as well as for Emperor Shizong of Jin to grant him investiture. In the summer of that year, Renzong's men secretly rounded up Ren Dejing and his adherents, executing them.

Wo Daochong succeeded Ren Dejing as chief minister. A Confucian scholar, he translated the Analects and provided commentary to it in the Tangut language. Upon his death, Renzong honored him by having his portrait displayed in all the Confucian temples and schools.

The Jurchens closed down border markets in Lanzhou and Baoan in 1172 and would not reopen them until 1197. They accused the Tanguts of trading worthless gems and jades for their silk. Tangut border raids increased during this period until the Jurchens reopened one market in 1181. In 1191 some Tangut herdsmen strayed into Jurchen territory and was chased away by a Jin patrol. They them ambushed and killed the pursuing patrol officer. Renzong refused to extradite the herdsmen and assured the Jurchens that they would be punished.

Renzong died in 1193 at the age of 70.

Huanzong (1193–1206)

The 17-year-old Chunyou succeeded his father, Emperor Renzong of Western Xia, as emperor, posthumously Emperor Huanzong of Western Xia. Little besides the rise of Temüjin and his conflict with Western Xia is known about Huanzong's reign. In 1203, Toghrul was defeated by Temüjin. Toghrul's son, Nilqa Senggum, fled through Tangut territory and although the Tanguts refused to provide him with refuge, and he raided their territory, Temüjin used this as pretext to raid Western Xia. The resulting attack in 1205 caused one local Tangut noble to defect to the Mongols, the plundering of several fortified settlements, and loss of livestock.

In 1206, Temüjin was formally proclaimed Genghis Khan, ruler of all Mongols, marking the official start of the Mongol Empire. In the same year, Huanzong was deposed in a coup by his cousin Anquan, who installed himself as Emperor Xiangzong of Western Xia. Huanzong died much later in captivity.

Xiangzong (1206–1211)

In 1207, Genghis led another raid into Western Xia, invading the Ordos Loop and sacking Wulahai, the main garrison along the Yellow River, before withdrawing in the spring of 1208. The Tanguts tried to form a united front with the Jurchen Jin dynasty against the Mongols, but the usurper monarch, Wanyan Yongji, refused to cooperate and declared that it was to their advantage that enemies attack one another.

In the autumn of 1209, Genghis received the submission of the Uyghurs to the west and invaded Western Xia. After defeating an army led by Gao Lianghui outside Wulahai, Genghis captured the city and pushed up along the Yellow River, capturing several garrisons and defeating another imperial army. The Mongols besieged the capital, Zhongxing, which held a well-fortified garrison of 150,000, and attempted to flood the city by diverting the Yellow River. The dike they built broke and flooded the Mongol camp, forcing them to withdraw. In 1210, Xiangzong agreed to submit to Mongol rule, and demonstrated his loyalty by giving a daughter, Chaka, in marriage to Genghis and paying a tribute of camels, falcons, and textiles.

After their defeat in 1210, Western Xia attacked the Jin dynasty in response to their refusal to aid them against the Mongols. The following year, the Mongols joined Western Xia and began a 23-year-long campaign against Jin. In the same year Xiangzong's nephew Zunxu seized power in a coup and became Emperor Shenzong of Western Xia. Xiangzong died a month later.

Shenzong (1211–1223)

Emperor Shenzong of Western Xia was the first person in the imperial family to pass the palace examinations and receive a jinshi degree.

Shenzong appeased the Mongols by attacking the Jurchens and in 1214, supported a rebellion against the Jurchens. In 1216, Western Xia provided auxiliary troops to the Mongols for an attack on Jin territory. The Tanguts also invited the Song dynasty to join them in attacking the Jin, but nothing came of this except an aborted joint action in 1220. The antagonistic policy towards the Jurchen Jin was unpopular at court, as was cooperating with the Mongols. A certain Asha Gambu emerged as an outspoken proponent of anti-Mongol policy. In the winter of 1217-18, the Mongols called on Western Xia to provide them troops for campaigns further west, but they refused to comply. No immediate retaliation occurred since Genghis left for the west in 1219 and left Muqali in charge of North China. In 1223, Muqali died. At the same time, Shenzong abdicated to his son, Dewang, posthumously Emperor Xianzong of Western Xia.

Xianzong (1223–1226)

Emperor Xianzong of Western Xia began peace talks with the Jurchen Jin in 1224 and the peace agreement was finalized in the fall of 1225. The Tanguts continued to defy the Mongols by refusing to send a hostage prince to the Mongol court.

After defeating Khwarazm in 1221, Genghis prepared his armies to punish Western Xia. In 1225, Genghis attacked with a force of approximately 180,000. According to the Secret History of the Mongols, Genghis was injured in 1225 during a horse hunt when his horse bolted from under him. Genghis then tried to offer Western Xia the chance to willingly submit, but Asha Gambhu mocked the Mongols and challenged them to battle. Genghis pledged to avenge this insult. Genghis ordered his generals to systematically destroy cities and garrisons as they went.

Genghis divided his army and sent general Subutai to take care of the westernmost cities, while the main force under Genghis moved east into the heart of the Western Xia and took Suzhou and Ganzhou, which was spared destruction upon its capture due to it being the hometown of Genghis's commander Chagaan. After taking Khara-Khoto in early 1226, the Mongols began a steady advance southward. Asha, commander of the Western Xia troops, could not afford to meet the Mongols as it would involve an exhausting westward march from the capital through 500 kilometers of desert, so the Mongols steadily advanced from city to city.

In August 1226, Mongol troops approached Liangzhou, the second-largest city in Western Xia, which surrendered without resistance. In Autumn 1226, Genghis crossed the Helan Mountains, and in November laid siege to Lingwu, a mere 30 kilometers from the capital. At this point, Xianzong died, leaving his relative, Xian, posthumously Emperor Mozhu of Western Xia, to deal with the Mongol invasion.

Mo (1226–1227)

Emperor Mo of Western Xia led a 300,000 strong army against the Mongols and was defeated. The Mongols sacked Lingzhou.

Genghis reached the Western Xia capital in 1227, laid siege to the city, and launched several offensives against the Jin to prevent them from sending reinforcements to Western Xia, with one force reaching as a far as Kaifeng, the Jin capital. The siege lasted for six months before Genghis offered terms of surrender. During the peace negotiations, Genghis continued his military operations around the Liupan mountains near Guyuan, rejected a peace offer from the Jin, and prepared to invade them near their border with the Song.

In August 1227, Genghis died of uncertain causes, and, in order not to jeopardize the ongoing campaign, his death was kept a secret. In September 1227, Emperor Mo surrendered to the Mongols and was promptly executed. The Mongols then pillaged the capital, slaughtered the city's population, plundered the imperial tombs to the west, and completed the annihilation of the Western Xia state.

Destruction

The destruction of Western Xia during the second campaign was near total. According to John Man, Western Xia is little known to anyone other than experts in the field precisely because of Genghis Khan's policy calling for their complete eradication. He states that "There is a case to be made that this was the first ever recorded example of attempted genocide. It was certainly very successful ethnocide." However, some members of the Western Xia royal clan emigrated to western Sichuan, northern Tibet, even possibly Northeast India, in some instances becoming local rulers. A small Western Xia state was established in Tibet along the upper reaches of the Yalong River while other Western Xia populations settled in what are now the modern provinces of Henan and Hebei. In China, remnants of the Western Xia persisted into the middle of the Ming dynasty.

Military

The Western Xia had two elite military units, the Iron Hawks (tie yaozi), a 3,000 strong heavy cavalry unit, and Trekker infantry (bubazi), mountain infantry. The brother of Emperor Chongzong of Western Xia, Chage, mentioned that Trekker infantry had difficulty fighting Mighty-Arm bows, a type of Song dynasty crossbow:

Culture

Language

The kingdom developed a Tangut script to write its own Tangut language, a now extinct Tibeto-Burman language.

Tibetans, Uyghurs, Han Chinese, and Tanguts served as officials in Western Xia. It is unclear how distinct the different ethnic groups were in the Xia state as intermarriage was never prohibited. Tangut, Chinese and Tibetan were all official languages.

Dress

In 1034 Li Yuanhao (Emperor Jingzong) introduced and decreed a new custom for Western Xia subjects to shave their heads, leaving a fringe covering the forehead and temples, ostensibly to distinguish them from neighbouring countries. Clothing was regulated for different classes of official and commoners. Dress seemed to be influenced by Tibetan and Uighur clothing.

Religion

The government-sponsored state religion was a blend of Tibetan Tantric Buddhism and Chinese Mahayana Buddhism with a Sino-Nepalese artistic style. The scholar-official class engaged in the study of Confucian classics, Taoist texts, and Buddhist sermons, while the Emperor portrayed himself as a Buddhist King and patron of Lamas.

Early in the kingdom's history, Chinese Buddhism was the most widespread form of Buddhism practiced. However, around the mid-twelfth century Tibetan Buddhism gained prominence as rulers invited Tibetan monks to hold the distinctive office of state preceptor. The practice of Tantric Buddhism in Western Xia led to the spread of some sexually related customs. Before they could marry men of their own ethnicity when they reached 30 years old, Uighur women in Shaanxi in the 12th century had children after having relations with multiple Han Chinese men, with her desirability as a wife enhancing if she had been with a large number of men.

Economy

The economy of the kingdom mainly consisted of agriculture, pastoralism, and trade (especially with Central Asia).

Rulers

Gallery

File:SDIM3894MKGStrohbuddha.jpg|A clay head of the Buddha, Western Xia dynasty, 12th century

File:Grey Kalavinka.jpg|A winged kalavinka made of grey pottery, Western Xia dynasty

File:Yulin Cave 3 w wall Manjusri (Western Xia).jpg|A painting of the Buddhist manjusri, from the Yulin Caves of Gansu, China, from the Tangut-led Western Xia dynasty

File:Dunhuang mogao mural cave 409.jpg|Concubines of the Tangut ruler

File:Xixia Museum wooden figure of cavalry soldier.jpg|Wooden figure of a Tangut soldier

File:西夏女供養人像.png|Tangut women

File:Tangut servants.jpg|Tangut servants

File:Tangut bride.jpg|Tangut bride

File:Beijing printing museum.12th century.Xixia argile movable type print.jpg|Printed text using pottery (argile) movable type from Western Xia around the mid-12th century. Found in Xinhua Xiang (新华乡); Wuwei City, Gansu province.

File:Chrysographic Tangut Golden Light Sutra.jpg|The Golden Light Sutra written in the Tangut script