國號

「朝鮮」原本是朝鮮半島歷史最初的國家古朝鮮的國號。該詞最早見于中國古籍《山海經》〈海內經〉：「東海之內，北海之隅，有國名朝鮮」。《尚書大傳》對其含義的解釋為「朝日鮮明」。高麗時期，「朝鮮」一詞被沿用為其國號別稱。李成桂建立朝鮮王朝後，在與重臣們共同商討國號變更事宜後擬定兩個國號——「朝鮮」（古朝鮮國名）和「和寧」（李成桂之父李子春就仕之地）奏請明太祖朱元璋裁定。朱元璋認為「東夷之號，惟朝鮮之稱美，且其來遠，可以本其名而祖之。」，而選定了「朝鮮」為其國號。在有些場合下，朝鮮也會在國號前冠以上國名號，最常見的是「有明朝鮮國」，此外還有「皇明朝鮮國」、「大明朝鮮國」等稱謂（但未見冠以大清國號的例子）。

近代開港以後，開始對歐美日本使用「大朝鮮國」的國號，此稱呼最早出現于1876年的《日朝修好條規》，1882年通過鑄造「大朝鮮國大君主寶」而固定化。1897年改國號為「大韓帝國」。在西方學術界，皆以「Joseon」來稱呼這個朝代，並無爭議。然而，在今日東亞的學術界，由於政治因素，對該朝代存在著多種稱謂。在朝鮮日治時期，朝鮮總督府將該朝代稱為「李氏朝鮮」，簡稱李朝；古代存在的使用朝鮮為國號的國家則被稱為「古朝鮮」，以示區別。歷代大王實錄則被定名為《李朝實錄》。

大韓民國成立後，韓國人認為日占時期使用的「李氏朝鮮」有殖民色彩，所以將這一歷史時期改名為「朝鮮王朝」（），簡稱「朝鮮」（）；並把《李朝實錄》更名為《朝鮮王朝實錄》。。但中國、日本學術界仍然長期沿用「李氏朝鮮」這一稱呼。近年來，日本和中國逐漸開始有學者使用「朝鮮王朝」這個稱呼。日本的文部科學省在2002年的教科書檢定時表示關于「李氏朝鮮」的稱呼為「不恰當的表記」。發表該意見的理由為，反映日本的學術研究的成果的說明，需要與朝鮮史學界保持稱呼上的一致。

在朝鮮民主主義人民共和國，官方使用「李王朝」（）、「李氏王朝」或「朝鮮封建王朝」（）的稱謂，在主體史學被認為是第五個國家主體和第二個統一的國家。由于政治上的忌諱，在朝鮮民主主義人民共和國，「朝鮮」和「王朝」中間必須加「封建」二字，例如稱呼歷代大王實錄為《朝鮮封建王朝實錄》。在歷史教育的場合，對封建統治者進行批判時使用「李朝封建國家」等稱呼。

歷史

前期歷史

建國

14世紀末，由於長年戰亂和蒙古帝國的入侵，高麗王朝已經岌岌可危。1388年，明朝派特使要求高麗歸還開元路；高麗重臣崔瑩藉此準備與明開戰，並派李成桂出兵攻打遼東半島。李成桂的軍隊在威化島遭遇大水，士兵不願遠征，多有逃亡者。李成桂多次請求撤軍回國，但都遭到崔瑩拒絕，最終導致李成桂發動兵變推翻國王王禑的統治，並立王禑之子——年僅八歲的王昌為王。李成桂發現王禑複闢的企圖後，將王禑和王昌都處死，並立王瑤為王。

1392年，李成桂清除高麗宮廷反對派的首領鄭夢周，並在流放王瑤到原州之後，自立為王，結束高麗王朝近500年的歷史。十一月，李成桂頒詔定都漢陽，建宗廟社稷、宮室城池，同時由鄭道傳等人制訂《朝鮮經國典》。李成桂推行崇尚儒教，貶抑佛法的國策，寺院土地多被沒收，貴族莊園裡的奴婢都被釋放，並且實行開墾農地與改良農具谷種等勸農政策。李成桂還通過招撫、武力征服朝鮮半島東北地區的女真部落，進一步加強對該地區的管轄，使其疆域達到圖們江。

王子之亂與太宗掌權

隨著朝鮮新王位的產生和鞏固，王位繼承人開始成為朝鮮的一個問題。李成桂的五子李芳遠曾幫助李成桂剷除鄭夢周，在各王子中功勞是最大的。但重臣鄭道傳希望在朝鮮建立以宰相為中心的統治制度，並成功遊說李成桂將其最喜愛的幼子繼妃神德王后所生的李芳碩封為世子。鄭道傳後成為世子輔佐人。鄭道傳勢力下令廢除李成桂元妃神懿王后所生王子的侍衛軍，並策劃剷除元妃所生的所有王子。但李芳遠卻以破壞長幼之序為名率領宗親及其勢力搶先一步發動政變，闖入宮中將李芳碩殺死，並剷除了鄭道傳一派，史稱「第一次王子之亂」（戊寅靖社）。李成桂次子李芳果在李芳遠扶植下成為世子，並繼承王位，是為定宗。而李芳遠則成為朝鮮實際掌權人。

定宗即位後，李芳遠的權力與勢力得到進一步的鞏固和擴大。定宗元年9月，李芳遠提出廢除私兵的建議，引發其四兄李芳幹一派勢力的不滿。1400年正月，李芳幹及一派與李芳遠在開京街頭展開激烈的巷戰，但戰敗，史稱「第二次王子之亂」（庚辰靖社）。第二次王子之亂後，定宗讓位給李芳遠，是為太宗。李芳幹被流放，樸苞流放後被處死。

太宗即位後，廢除王子和貴族的私兵制度。私兵制度的廢除有效預防可能的反叛，並增加國家軍隊中的士兵人數。太宗第二條措施是修改土地稅法，普查人口。隨著新發現土地的增加，國家收入增加一倍，使王權得到鞏固，為其王位繼承者世宗的統治打下良好基礎。

世宗時期

1418年8月，世宗在其父太宗退位前兩個月登基。1419年5月世宗在太宗的建議和指導下己亥東征清除對馬島的倭寇。1419年9月，對馬島大名被活捉帶回朝鮮宮中。1443年癸亥條約簽訂。對馬島大名被授權每年與朝鮮進行50船的貿易，向朝鮮朝廷進貢並負責防止倭寇對朝鮮海港的侵擾。

在北部邊疆，世宗下令修建四郡六鎮以加強邊防。世宗還制定諸多鞏固國防的法規並倡導新武器的發明和發展。在世宗的帶領下，朝鮮研製出許多火箭及火炮，如對神機箭的改造。1433年，世宗派金宗瑞擊敗女真兀狄哈部落，鞏固對朝鮮半島東北部咸鏡道等地方的統治。目前朝鮮半島的領土基本上與世宗時期相符。

在世宗統治期間，朝鮮的科技、文化等方面都得到很大的發展。世宗大力倡導朝鮮臣民學習文學。世宗在景福宮建立集賢殿，親自選拔人才進行各種的學術研究。其中最著名的是《訓民正音》的編輯和朝鮮諺文書寫系統的發明。朝鮮諺文的發明大大提高朝鮮平民的文化普及，並為朝鮮民族創造出自己獨特的書寫文字。由于世宗的功績，被韓國人尊稱為「世宗大王」。

世祖、成宗時期

1450年世宗去世，其長子文宗即位。文宗基本上繼續世宗的政策，不過即位僅兩年就因病去世。文宗年僅12歲的兒子端宗即位。端宗的叔父首陽大君李瑈用韓明澮、鄭麟趾等人之計，在1453年發動政變，史稱癸酉靖難，李瑈以死士將2位輔助端宗的重臣皇甫仁和金宗瑞殺死而掌握實權。1455年端宗被迫內禪予李瑈，就是朝鮮世祖。後來成三問、樸彭年等六位大臣密謀使端宗復闢，事敗，被世祖殺害，史稱「死六臣事件」。世祖為了避免此類事件再度發生，也賜死端宗。

雖然世祖王位來自於篡位，世祖卻像太宗一樣治國有方。經過一系列的改革，世祖加強王權，使國家的經濟和軍事力量得到近一步的加強。朝鮮王朝的基本法典《經國大典》亦在世祖時期開始編纂，被譽為「國家的立國磐石」。

世祖之後，其子睿宗成為朝鮮第八任君主。但體弱多病的睿宗即位不到兩年就因病去世。1469年，睿宗的侄子成宗即位。成宗統治期間，國家經濟文化繁榮發展。成宗邀請士林派來到宮中參與政治，在宮中建立弘文館，並成立由儒學家組成的智囊團為治理國家獻言獻策，完善包括司憲府、司諫院和弘文館的朝鮮三司制度。成宗時期是續世宗後，朝鮮又一個文化發展黃金時期，大量書籍在這一時期發表問世。

四大士禍

成宗的兒子燕山君被認為是朝鮮的昏君。在他統治期間，朝鮮發生戊午士禍和甲子士禍，大批知識分子被屠殺。燕山君在得知生母不是貞顯王后而是廢妃尹氏後，行為開始變得異常。尹氏因被指控出于妒嫉毒害成宗妃子而被成宗賜毒酒而死。在得知此事後，燕山君殺死指控尹氏的嚴、鄭兩貴人和支持賜死尹氏的官員及其家眷。對世祖篡位有偏詞的士林派學者也遭到燕山君殺害。燕山君還搜掠千名美女為其作樂，把成均館當成花天酒地的地方。由于有民眾使用諺文書寫傳單痛斥燕山君，燕山君還下令禁止諺文的使用。燕山君統治僅維持12年。1506年中宗反正後，燕山君遭成希顏、樸元宗等朝臣廢黜，被流放至江華島，兩個月後病死，得年30歲。因以暴君身分被廢，因而無廟號、尊號、諡號、陵名等。

中宗是個平庸之人，只是因所處的歷史時期而被推上王位。不過在中宗時期，中宗的大臣士林派首領趙光祖開展許多大規模的改革。趙光祖建立鄉約以加強地方的管理，並通過土地改革降低貧富差距。趙光祖還通過發行簡易本的儒學在大眾中傳播儒家思想，並致力于精簡國家機構。據《朝鮮王朝實錄》記載，由于趙光祖的嚴厲監督，在這一時期朝鮮的官員無人敢收受賄賂或濫用職權。趙光祖的激進改革得到廣大民眾的擁護，但遭到幫助中宗登上王位的勛舊派的強烈反對，並密謀陷害趙光祖。中宗後宮熙嬪洪氏（勛舊派洪景舟之女）在王宮後山通過塗蜂蜜和蟲子咬製造上有「走肖為王」字樣的樹葉。使中宗相信老天在告訴他趙光祖要謀反。1519年，趙光祖被賜死，史稱「己卯士禍」。在隨後的50年中，朝鮮朝廷黨派紛爭，腐敗盛行。

中期歷史

朝鮮王朝中期黨派紛爭奪越演越烈，國力削弱，倭寇與後金入侵使國家幾盡毀滅。

黨派紛爭

士林派在燕山君、中宗和明宗統治期間勢力一直被削弱。宣祖統治時期，士林派重新掌權但很快分裂成為東人黨和西人黨兩派。東人黨又分裂為南人黨與北人黨。西人黨又分為老論派和少論派。隨著權力在這些黨派間的更迭，隨之而來的是血腥的清剿和相互不斷的報複。

1589年的己丑獄事就是其中一例。東人黨的鄭汝立有個抗擊倭寇的組織，成員們進行軍事訓練。這個組織宣揚沒有階級的社會，因此其性質和目的受到人們的質疑。西人黨的首領鄭澈負責調查此事。鄭澈指控鄭汝立密謀造反，並藉此事清剿與鄭汝立團體有任何牽連的東人黨。最終有千名東人黨人被處死或流放。

壬辰倭亂

16世紀末，豐臣秀吉統一日本後，蓄謀以朝鮮為踏板攻打明朝，于1592年4月率15萬陸軍和數萬水軍入侵朝鮮。倭寇攻占釜山和東萊城後，兵分東、中、西三路北上，20天後攻下漢城，後又占領平壤。朝鮮宣祖逃往鴨綠江邊的義州。全羅左道水軍節度使李舜臣率領朝鮮水軍抵抗外敵，並研製出了極具戰鬥力的龜船，在玉浦、赤珍浦、泗川、唐浦，特別是閒山島等海戰中擊敗敵軍，有效遏制住倭寇「水陸並進」的計劃，使其難以向平壤以北地區進犯。在陸上，雖然朝鮮官兵節節敗退，但朝鮮各地民眾卻自發組織義兵，抵抗倭寇入侵，出現了郭再祐、等義兵部隊，取得了延安大捷、晉州大捷等勝利。

1592年7月，明朝應朝鮮宣祖求助請求，從遼東派遣了一支數千人的隊伍援助。遼東副總兵祖承訓輕敵率兵攻打平壤，結果戰敗。游擊將軍史儒等陣亡。同年8月，明神宗任命宋應昌為兵部右侍郎經略主持援朝事務，10月任命李如松為援朝提督。同年12月，李如松率4萬餘名明軍進入朝鮮。1593年1月，明朝兩國聯軍收複平壤，後乘勝追擊拿下開城，收複黃海、平安、京畿、江源四道，但在碧蹄館之戰中受挫。2月，朝鮮將領權慄在幸州山城之戰以少勝多，大敗倭寇。4月，占據漢城的倭寇最終棄城脫逃，後與明朝兩國議和。朝鮮隨後陸續收複漢江以南地區。李如松主力部隊撤出朝鮮。

1597年1月，豐臣秀吉派小西行長和加藤清正等率14萬大軍捲土重來，再次入侵朝鮮。事先已有準備的明朝很快派出以邢玠為總督，楊鎬為經略，麻貴為大將軍的14萬援朝軍隊。全州失守後，明軍在稷山之戰中挫敗倭寇，使其難以北上。此後，明軍攻打蔚山。小西行長派水軍增援。楊鎬棄兵先逃，導致明軍慘敗。明神宗後將楊鎬免職，任命萬世德代理經略，並派陳璘和鄧子龍率明水軍參戰。朝鮮方面重新任用被陷害的李舜臣。1597年9月，李舜臣的水軍在鳴梁海戰中取得巨大勝利。1598年11月，李舜臣與明將鄧子龍在露梁海戰中大敗倭寇，兩人也在此次戰役中陣亡。此後，倭寇從朝鮮全部撤退，其通過占領朝鮮並以之為跳板進攻明朝的計劃最終以失敗告終。

後金入侵

1618年，努爾哈赤統一女真後開始攻打明朝。後金和明都想聯合朝鮮。由于明曾幫朝鮮擊退倭寇，對明朝頗為不滿的光海君還是在薩爾滸之戰中派兵支援明朝。1623年，仁祖反正即位後，開始執行更公開的助明打後金的策略。但由于李适造反，仁祖需在漢陽部署重兵以維護首都穩定，導致防衛北部邊疆軍力不足。1627年，皇太極鑑於向西進攻受挫，決定派阿敏帶領3萬部隊攻打朝鮮，並清剿敗退到朝鮮的明將毛文龍，史稱「丁卯胡亂」。雖然雙方最後議和訂立「兄弟國的盟約」，但朝鮮親明的立場並沒有改變。

1636年，皇太極在征服東北和內蒙大片地區後稱帝，改國號清，讓朝鮮稱臣遭到拒絕。在盛京參加皇太極登基儀式的朝鮮使節也拒絕向皇太極行三跪九叩之禮。同年12月，皇太極親自率領十萬軍隊入侵朝鮮，俘虜躲在江華島的仁祖后妃、王子和宗室76人，迫使被圍困在南漢山城的仁祖投降，臣服，史稱「丙子胡亂」。皇太極藉此向朝鮮索要大量財物，掠奪朝鮮人口，並讓朝鮮在三田渡建立頌揚清太宗的大清皇帝功德碑。仁祖兩位王子李𣳫和李淏入清作人質。朝鮮從此斷絕與明的藩屬關係成為清的藩屬。

仁祖之後的孝宗曾試圖聯合南明、三藩割據勢力、台灣鄭氏政權等反清勢力北伐滅清，但最終因財政困難而計劃擱淺。清控制中國後開始逐漸與朝鮮交好，送還被扣作人質的朝鮮王子，消減貢物要求，還兩次邀請朝鮮與八旗軍隊結聯軍北上討伐侵擾中國東北邊境的沙俄軍隊，史稱「羅禪征伐」。隨著清朝進入「康乾盛世」，朝鮮文人對清朝的態度也發生變化，出現了倡導向清人學習的北學派。

後期歷史

短暫複興

在日本和後金入侵朝鮮之後的200年裡，朝鮮半島一直沒有戰爭發生。實學在朝鮮開始興起。早期的朝鮮實學者主張一系列包括科舉、稅收、科技和農業技術的改革，旨在複興被倭與女真損毀的國家。在顯宗統治時期，實學者金堉的改革不僅使朝鮮稅收增加，也使農民受益。

肅宗死後，世子李昀繼位，即景宗。景宗二年因為立儲問題發生辛壬士禍。由于景宗成婚多年始終無子，于是在景宗元年冊立李昑為王世弟。然而當時朝廷的黨爭激烈，因此李昑的儲位並不穩固，不過景宗友愛弟弟，再加上嫡母仁元王后的庇護，終究安然無恙。四年八月二十五日，景宗病逝，王世弟即位。由于景宗壯年早逝，因此坊間也有新王弒兄的傳言出現。英祖四年（1728年），少論派人李麟佐、鄭希亮等起兵，以宗室密豐君（昭顯世子曾孫）李坦為君，但以失敗告終，史稱李麟佐之亂。

英祖十五年（1739年）為中宗元配廢妃慎氏複位，追尊為端敬王后。二十二年（1746年）複金宗瑞、皇甫仁（端宗朝大臣）等人官職，二十三年（1747年）又恢復安平大君李瑢（世宗嫡三子）的官職。英祖三十三年王妃徐氏病逝，英祖在兩年後冊立大臣金漢耇之女為新任王妃，他和兩任妻子之間都沒有任何子嗣，雖然他有兩子十二女，不過都是由後宮所出。其中長子李緈早夭，次子李愃雖然順利長大成人，然而因為某些因素，導致英祖被迫將李愃關進米櫃餓死。王位後來則由世孫李算（李愃之次子）繼承。英祖五十二年三月五日，英祖升遐于慶熙宮集慶堂。朝鮮肅宗和英祖統治時期，為了防止黨派的爭奪，朝鮮君主採取對黨派一視同仁的政策。朝鮮官員的任命與其所處的黨派分離。

正祖被後世認為是極為仁孝的君王，因為朝鮮的禮法制度，他沒有辦法尊母親惠慶宮洪氏為王大妃，但對其相當的孝順，為其屢上尊號，最終追尊為獻敬王后。正祖在十一歲那年目睹父親莊獻世子的慘死，即位後除了追尊宗法父親孝章世子為真宗外，對親生父親的追慕活動也無休無止，先是將垂恩墓升格為永祐園，祠堂垂恩廟升格為景慕宮，並為其屢次加上尊號。正祖十三年，決定將永祐園遷至風水吉地京畿道水原郡華山腳下，仿照世祖的光陵加以擴建，並更名為顯隆園。正祖十八年在水原八達山麓開工建設水原華城和水原行宮。正祖計劃將華城修建為農、工、商兼備的城市，從南方拱衛漢城。1800年庚申（嘉慶五年）六月二十八日，正祖去世于昌慶宮迎春軒。在位二十四年，終年四十九歲。葬于楊州健陵。

朝鮮英祖和正祖統治時期，朝鮮開始出現複興。正祖統治時期開展更為開放的社會改革政策，得到實學者的廣泛支持。朝鮮的社會文化在這一時期得到長足發展。

衰退

1800年，英正時代結束後，繼位者多半年幼加上無嗣，而安東金氏、豐壤趙氏等外戚勢力逐漸崛起，權傾朝野，家族內曾有三位女性成為王后，並有多人曾出任領議政，稱為「勢道政治」，王權旁落。直到1863年，高宗即位，其父興宣大院君攝政時逐漸削弱外戚勢力，王權在朝政上的影響力才又有效鞏固。

1860年代中期，興宣大院君統治閉關鎖國，迫害國內外的基督徒。最終導致1866年8月法國派艦隊攻打江華島，法國戰敗，史稱「丙寅洋擾」。興宣大院君攝政初期的大部分精力主要是修複景福宮。1868年，美國商船「舍門將軍號」在平壤靠岸，試圖與朝鮮開展商貿外交，但與當地居民發生衝突，部份船員被殺害。1871年，美國派兵到江華島，要求朝鮮就「舍門將軍號事件」道歉，但遭到朝鮮拒絕。外交斡旋發展成為武裝衝突。美國的進攻導致朝鮮的傷亡，但外交上仍是無果，最後撤兵，史稱「辛未洋擾」。

1873年，興宣大院君引退，高宗名義上正式掌權，但實權被高宗王后閔妃（明成皇后）掌握。朝鮮宮中的高官都是閔妃的親屬。明治維新後的日本，1876年依靠西方先進武器迫使朝鮮簽訂《江華島條約》。日本取得自由勘測朝鮮海口、領事裁判權、貿易等權利。

外強的入侵和朝鮮腐敗統治使民眾不滿。1894年1月10日，東學南接派代表人物全琫准在全羅道發起東學農民革命，提出「輔國安民，斥倭斥洋，盡滅權貴」。高宗恐慌，向清朝政府告急。清朝派出3,000軍隊與起義軍達成停火。1894年6月8日日本得知清朝派兵到朝鮮後，派出8,000軍隊占領景福宮，並成立親日政府。此次事件最終升級成為甲午戰爭 (1894年–1895年)。1895年4月17日，日本與清簽訂《馬關條約》後，朝鮮不再是清的藩屬國。高宗閔妃欲聯合沙俄牽制日本，推翻樸泳孝親日內閣，組建親俄內閣，遭日本右翼殺害，史稱「乙未事變」。此後的金弘集親日內閣頒布「斷髮令」等改革法令，遭到朝鮮民眾反對。以乙未事變和斷髮令為導火線，朝鮮爆發全國性大規模反日義兵運動，金弘集內閣垮台。

大韓帝國與日韓合併

俄館播遷後，沙俄在朝鮮半島的勢力得到進一步的提高，而日本則在失去遼東之後，再次遭到重挫。俄日兩國的對峙為朝鮮的獨立提供了良好時機。1896年，朝鮮開始使用建陽的年號紀年。為進一步實現獨立，朝鮮群臣紛紛上奏高宗建立與中國和日本一樣的帝制。在群臣多次建議下，高宗最終接受了文武眾臣的建議，並于1897年10月12日在圜丘壇祭天並登基稱帝，宣布大韓帝國正式成立，改年號為「光武」，並開始對朝鮮軍事、經濟、私有制、教育等進行適應工業化的光武改革。

1905年，日本在旅順會戰戰勝沙俄，雙方簽署《樸次茅斯和約》，日俄戰爭結束。1905年11月17日，日本與朝鮮簽訂《乙巳條約》，朝鮮成為日本的保護國。伊藤博文成為日本在朝鮮的第一任統監。1909年伊藤博文在哈爾濱被朝鮮民族主義者安重根刺殺身亡。1910年，《日韓合併條約》簽訂。

政治

朝鮮王朝的政治結構採用中央集權制。1469年完成的《經國大典》確立新的政治制度。以後雖然官職的名稱存廢有一定的變動，但是整個朝鮮王朝時期的官職制度總體上都遵循《經國大典》的規定。文、武兩班由正一品到從九品，共計九品十八級。按朝議時是否坐在堂上，分為堂上、堂下官。按是否參與定期朝會分為參上、參下官。四品以上文官為大夫，武官為將軍。正五品以下的文官為郎，武官為校尉和副尉。

王室

朝鮮君主受中原王朝冊封國王，地位相當於中原的親王，自稱「寡人」，被尊稱「主上」、「殿下」。國王的正室稱王妃，被尊稱「中殿」。儲君稱王世子，被尊稱「邸下」。前任國王的王妃稱「王大妃」，前前任國王的王妃稱「大王大妃」。

中央政府

議政府是朝鮮國王之下的最高中央行政機構（相當于元朝和明初的中書省），其首領為領議政（相當于元朝和明初的中書丞相）。領議政之下為左右議政，與領議政同為正一品。再下為從一品左右贊成、正二品左右參贊。再下有正四品舍人、正五品檢詳、正八品司錄。

議政府之下設有吏、戶、禮、兵、刑、工六曹（相當于同時期明朝的六部）。吏曹負責執行官吏的任免；戶曹掌管戶口和租稅；禮曹負責禮儀、教育、科舉、外交；兵曹掌管軍隊和武官的任免；刑曹掌法律事務；工曹掌管手工業、山林湖泊，以及土木工程。六曹長官稱判書（正二品），相當于中國的六部尚書；副職稱為參判（從二品），相當于中國的侍郎，往下有六曹參議（正三品堂上）、六曹參知（正三品堂上）、六曹正郎（正五品）等官職。朝鮮王朝早期效仿明太祖直接管理六部的方法，實行六曹直啟制，六曹直接對國王負責，世宗後改行議政府署事制，六曹歸議政府管轄。

此外還有三司（司諫院、司憲府和弘文館），以及承政院、義禁府等。司諫院是負責規諫君主不當行為的諫諍機構。司憲府是負責監察官吏的監察機構。弘文館相當于世宗時期的集賢殿，是朝鮮君主的智囊團。三司是牽制朝鮮君主，以及議政院、六曹等行政機構的機關。其長官為大司諫（從二品）、大司憲（從二品）和大提學（正二品）。承政院是負責擬定和傳達朝鮮君主詔令文書的秘書機構。義禁府按照君主指令審理官僚貴族違法行為。

地方政府

地方行政分為京畿、江原、慶尚、忠清、全羅、平安、咸鏡和黃海八道。各道設有觀察使為長官。在道之下設有、都護府、府、郡、縣等行政區劃。牧和都護府置「使」，府置「」，郡置「守」，縣置「令」或「」。地方官員統稱為「」，直接管理地方行政、司法，為中央政府徵收稅役，並受觀察使統轄監察。守令和觀察使都由中央政府外派，任期分別為5年和1年。為防止謀私利，守令不能在其長期居住地任職。

各級地方行政設有與中央政府六曹相似的「六房」（吏、戶、禮、兵、刑、工）。六房由當地世襲「鄉吏」行使職權。鄉吏不授官品，也無俸祿。各郡縣設有民選的「鄉廳」，負責輔佐，監察鄉吏，反映民情。為方便地方與中央的聯繫，各郡縣在漢城還設立「京在所」，並有留住漢城的鄉吏「京邸吏」。

軍隊

朝鮮王朝實行文人治軍和兵將分離制度，無定將、無定卒，類似輪流服役的預備役軍隊，而非常備軍。西班外官職包括兵馬節度使、兵馬防禦使、水軍統禦使、水軍防禦使、水軍中軍、（下三道：全羅道、慶尚道、忠清道）三道水軍統禦使、三道水軍統制使（均為從二品）；兵馬節制使、水軍節度使、巡營中軍、鎮營將（均為正三品堂上）；兵馬僉節制使、水軍僉節制使、兵馬虞侯（均為從三品）；水軍虞侯（正四品）；兵馬同僉節制使、兵馬萬戶、水軍同僉節制使、水軍萬戶（均為從四品）、兵馬評事（正六品）、兵馬節制都尉、監牧官（均為從六品）、別將、權管別將（從九品）。

由於重文輕武，武官地位低，也有文官任武將的情形。

行政區劃

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朝鮮王朝歷代都把全國分為漢城府、四都（廣州府、開城府、江華府、水原府）和八道，八道俗稱朝鮮八道。朝鮮時代的八道行政區域如下：

八道之下設五府、五大都護府、二十牧、六十五都護府、七十七郡、二十六縣（令）、一百三十二縣（監）。1896年的乙未改革將慶尚、全羅、忠清、黃海、京畿五道分左右兩道；永安道（咸鏡道）分南北兩道；平安道分東西兩道；江原道分嶺東、嶺西兩部。

除了行政劃分以外，古代朝鮮還按傳統習慣將全國劃為六個大區：關北（咸鏡道、平安道）；關西（黃海道，平安道南部，以及江原道西部）；關東（江原道太白山以東的部分，又稱嶺東）；畿湖（京畿道全部和忠清道的一部）；湖南（忠清道一部分加上全羅道）；嶺南（慶尚道）。

高宗時期，曾實行過兩次行政改革，一道把朝鮮八道分為23府，但後來又再改成13道，即把平安、慶尚、咸鏡、全羅、忠清五道劃分為南北兩道，成為十三道。

經濟

農業

朝鮮建國初期進行了土地改革，並採取各種措施促進農業發展，使農業得到很大的提升。據《世宗實錄地理志》記載，15世紀20年代朝鮮全國耕地面積達1,686,107結，其中水田面積占28.1%。朝鮮朝廷大力推動各道的水利灌溉建設，15世紀中葉，朝鮮全國建有大小水庫300處。由于農業耕作方法的改善，土地利用率得到提高。輪種法取代了以往的易田法。一年兩熟、兩年三熟，以及先進的施肥方法等農業技術得到推廣。農作物種子特別是稻種也得到改良。1720年，水田在耕地面積的比例已經提高到37.6%，南方各道水田面積占到50%以上。17世紀後半葉，水稻插秧技術得到普及，並開始使用新的農具。

朝鮮王朝前期經濟作物與畜牧業有很大的發展。棉花、大麻、苧麻、桑樹、楮、莞草、竹等經濟作物的發展對手工業的發展也起到了推動作用。朝鮮的牧場由國家直接管理，主要飼養馬匹和牛羊等。《世宗實錄地理志》記載了58處國家牧場。17世紀，黃煙、辣椒、角瓜等經濟作物的種植面積大幅增加。人參也開始人工種植，種植面積逐漸擴大。

手工業

朝鮮的手工業主要有紡織、造紙、印刷、礦業、冶煉、火藥火炮製造、陶瓷、編席等。紡織手工業是朝鮮手工業的重要組成部分，分為棉織、絲織、夏布和麻布紡織手工業等。以三南地區（慶尚道、忠清道、全羅道）為中心的棉織手工業在紡織手工業中占主導地位。黃海道和平安道是絲織手工業的中心。夏布紡織手工業主要集中在忠清道。麻布紡織則遍及全國，以北部地區更為普遍。

朝鮮造紙業非常發達。紙張產量和質量都很高，種類也很多。1415年，朝鮮設立了造紙署大規模生產優質紙張。朝鮮的活字印刷業也很發達。1403年，朝鮮設立了鑄字所，出版印刷了許多書籍。

鐵、銅、金、銀等礦業和冶煉業也是朝鮮重要的工業，為朝鮮社會製造農具、武器、器皿等金屬製品。鐵礦業是朝鮮礦業的主導。據《世宗實錄》記載，當時朝鮮有60多所鐵礦場，主要分布在慶尚道和咸鏡道。銅的產地主要是黃海道的長淵和慶尚道的靈山、昌原等地。

商業

商業隨著農業與手工業的發展而誕生。朝鮮朝廷在漢城、開城、平壤、全州等大城市設有官府指定的商業場所「市廛」。市廛商人須從官府獲得經營商品的特權，同時還要承擔向朝廷提供各種必要物資的義務。除市廛外，大城市裡還有個人經營的小店鋪「坐商」，以及流動小商販「褓負商」。部分商人通過經商，積累了大量的財富成為富商大賈，按不同地區被稱為京商（漢城）、松商（開城）、柳商（平壤）、灣商（義州）。隨著商品流通的發展，被稱為「場門」的集市最早在全羅道開始出現，16世紀末擴展到京畿道、忠清道、慶尚道等整個中南部地區。據《》記載，17世紀朝鮮各地郡、鎮的村莊都有5日集市。

對外貿易

十七世紀後半葉，朝鮮的對外貿易得到很大的發展，私營貿易超過了官營貿易。朝鮮與中國的貿易最為活躍。鴨綠江沿岸的貿易稱為中江開市（1593年），圖們江沿岸的貿易稱為北關開市（有會寧開市（1638年）和慶源開市（1646年））。中江開市後被鴨綠江對岸鳳凰城的柵門後市所取代。

1609年，朝鮮與日本締結《己酉條約》後，兩國貿易開始正常化。雙方貿易以主要通過釜山的倭館進行的私營貿易為主。1673年，朝鮮倭館的日本人多達一千餘名。1691年，朝鮮還指定了30名專門從事倭館貿易的商賈。為迴避朝鮮政府的監視，日本商人還在加德島進行黑市貿易。

由于朝鮮地處中國和日本之前，朝鮮商人一方面從清朝買入棉絲賣日本，一方面從日本輸入金、銀然後轉賣給清商。這種轉口貿易在朝鮮對外貿易中也占有很大的比重。

外交

與明朝

李成桂建國後對明朝採取「事大以精誠，交鄰以信義」的「事大」外交原則，以確保其在朝鮮半島的統治地位。明太祖朱元璋鑑於元朝東征日本的失敗，認為「四方諸夷，皆限山隔海，僻在一隅。得其地不足以供給，得其民不足以使令」，將朝鮮列為不征之國。對于高麗末年的變故，朱元璋採取的是不幹涉的政策，並應朝鮮新政權之邀為其選取了國號「朝鮮」，承認其合法地位。不過明朝起初對朝鮮仍然存有顧慮，直到李芳遠即位後才對朝鮮冊封。雙方友好關係從此開始穩步發展。

16世紀末，豐臣秀吉統一日本列島後發動了侵略朝鮮乃至明朝的戰爭，通告朝鮮宣祖「吾欲假道貴國，超越山海，直入于明」。朝鮮向明朝求援後，明派重兵相救。明、朝兩國聯軍最終將倭寇驅逐出朝鮮半島，取得最後勝利。1619年，努爾哈赤率兵攻打明朝。朝鮮亦應邀派姜弘立率領1.3萬軍隊在薩爾滸之戰中援助明朝。

與清朝

女真在後金成立前一定程度上也受到朝鮮羈縻。努爾哈赤統一女真建立後金後開始攻打明朝，並想聯合朝鮮。由于明曾在萬曆朝鮮戰爭幫助朝鮮，朝鮮並沒有與後金聯合而是幫助明朝攻打後金。1627年2月，後金為先除後患並清剿敗退到朝鮮的明將毛文龍部隊，征討朝鮮，史稱「丁卯胡亂」。因寡不敵眾，仁祖被迫與後金求和，雙方結成「兄弟之邦」。1636年8月，後金征服東北和內蒙大片地區後改國號為清，讓朝鮮稱臣，遭到仁祖拒絕。同年12月，後金再次大規模入侵朝鮮，俘虜躲在江華島的仁祖后妃和王子，迫使仁祖投降，向清稱臣，史稱「丙子胡亂」。直至1644年皇太極去世，朝鮮一直處在清朝的威壓之下。

1645年開始，隨著清軍入關進占北京，以及明朝徹底滅亡，朝鮮與清的關係也開始出現緩和。清統治者入駐北京後也日益漢化，摒棄了燒殺掠奪的遊牧民族習性，多次消減對朝貢物的要求。此外，清也意識到與朝鮮交好對鞏固邊防，抵禦沙俄入侵的重要性。康熙皇帝在位時期，朝鮮應清之邀兩次派兵與八旗軍聯合北上討伐沙皇俄國入侵，史稱「羅禪征伐」。1735年，乾隆繼位後，清對朝鮮甚為友好，很少幹涉朝鮮內政。朝鮮與清朝的這種和平友好關係一直持續到1840年的鴉片戰爭。

1840年，清在鴉片戰爭中戰敗後，外國列強開始滲透中國和朝鮮。為保全宗主國地位，清開始幹涉介入朝鮮內政、外交。1882年和1884年，清兩次派兵鎮壓了朝鮮壬午兵變和甲申政變，加強了對朝鮮的控制。但隨著日本勢力在朝鮮的日益加強，清最終在甲午戰爭中被日本逐出了朝鮮半島。1898年，清派徐壽明為駐朝公使，兩國開始了平等的外交關係。

與日本

朝鮮王朝初期延續了高麗王朝與室町幕府將軍的文書與使節往來。太宗時期，對馬島一帶倭寇變得猖獗。世宗元年（1419年），世宗派兵平定了對馬島倭寇，史稱「己亥東征」。之後，朝鮮應宗貞盛的請求，重新開通了三浦（乃而浦、富山浦、），允許倭人通過在三浦設立的倭館與朝鮮貿易。15世紀末，隨著倭館倭人的增加，黑市貿易也急劇增加，倭人與朝鮮人時常發生衝突。朝鮮於是下令禁止倭人的黑市貿易，引發倭人不滿。中宗五年（1510）發生「三浦倭亂」後，朝鮮關閉了倭館。1512年，朝鮮雖在對馬島島主的請求下，重開乃而浦，但倭寇依然猖獗，先後發生「蛇梁倭變」（1544年）、「乙卯倭變」（1555年），雙方交往日衰。1592年豐臣秀吉侵略朝鮮，明朝派兵援助。事後與日本斷交，至1609年才與江戶幕府恢復外交關係。

近代以來，1876年迫使朝鮮簽訂《江華島條約》。日本取得一系列經濟權益。1894年為了與中國爭奪朝鮮的宗主權爆發甲午戰爭。1895年4月17日，清軍戰敗，《馬關條約》簽署，朝鮮停止和清朝的藩屬關係。為遏制日本，明成皇后試圖拉攏俄國成為日本的絆腳石。1895年，明成皇后在景福宮玉壺樓被日本右翼暗殺並焚尸，史稱「乙未事變」。日本駐朝鮮全權公使三浦梧樓被認為是乙未事變的主導者。1897年，高宗成立大韓帝國。1905年，日本在旅順口海戰戰勝沙俄，雙方簽署《樸次茅斯和約》，日俄戰爭結束。1905年11月17日，日本與朝鮮簽訂《乙巳條約》，朝鮮成為日本的保護國。1910年，《日韓合併條約》簽訂，大韓帝國滅亡。

與美國

美國人于1845年最早關注朝鮮半島。當時美國紐約州議員、眾議院海軍委員會主席普拉特（Z. Pratt）就向眾議院提交過《開放朝鮮的議案》，認為應該抓住歐洲列強盯住中國和日本的時機，積極發展與朝鮮的通商機會，應該建立外交關係，但該議案沒有通過。1853年1月，一艘美國船隻駛入朝鮮東萊府的龍堂浦。8月22日到達平壤府，平安道中軍李玄益不准其貿易和傳教命立即退去。但舍門將軍號繼續溯江而上，崔蘭軒等人上岸偵察，準備盜掘當地王陵。李玄益駕船追擊，遭船員囚禁。雙方正式發生衝突，因江水過淺海船不能發揮威力，被朝鮮數百艘裝滿茅草、澆足了油的火船撞擊焚毀，美國船員全部死亡。美國報復攻擊導致辛未洋擾發生，派艦隻「亞細亞號」攻打江華島但又被當地軍民擊退，兩次小衝突勝利讓李氏自得意滿，鎖國政策更甚。1866年8月，美國商人普雷斯頓乘坐武裝商船「舍門將軍號」，發生了舍門將軍號事件，美國希望加大對東方的貿易，而朝鮮王朝則採取閉關鎖國政策，使得美國第一次用武力打開朝鮮半島國門的嘗試失敗。而美國先後于1867年、1868年、1870年和1871年多次企圖以炮艦政策強迫朝鮮通商，但最終都遭到了失敗。

1878年10月29日，美國海軍部向週遊非洲的海軍提督薛斐爾（Robert Wilson Shufeldt）下了訓令，要求用和平的方法，為與朝鮮交涉而盡力。當時的清朝北洋大臣李鴻章得知此事後，便邀請薛斐爾至天津會談。1881年11月，朝鮮高宗派使節與清朝協議對美修交的問題，並邀請了李鴻章代為主持締約談判。1882年初，李鴻章及其麾下便與美國全權大使薛斐爾就朝美通商一事，在天津進行了談判。5月22日，《朝美修好通商條約》在漢城（今首爾）正式簽訂。此時朝鮮王朝正式與美國建交，美國在漢城設置了外交機構並派駐公使。

在朝美修約（建交）後至朝鮮被日本吞併前的20多年裡，美國曾三次派兵至朝鮮。1888年，朝鮮出現叛亂，為保護僑民，美方向朝鮮半島沿岸派遣美國海軍；1894年至1896年，為保護甲午中日戰爭後漢城的美國公使館和美國僑民，當時美方派遣了美國海軍陸戰隊進駐漢城；1904年至1905年，為保護日俄戰爭期間的美國駐韓公使館，美方再次派遣陸戰隊入城。

1905年，日本與大韓帝國簽訂《乙巳條約》後，美國中斷了與朝鮮半島的外交關係。

與其他國家

1897年改國號之前，共有8個國家與朝鮮王朝建交，除美國和日本外，還有德意志帝國（1883年）、奧匈帝國（1892年）、法國（1886年）、意大利王國（1884年）、俄國（1884年）和英國（1882年），改國號之後又與丹麥（1902年）和比利時（1901年）建交。不過與這些國家的外交關係都在1905年與日本簽訂《乙巳條約》後中斷。

科技

天文學和地理學

朝鮮王宮內的科研機構發明正方案、圭表等天文儀器，以及仰釜日晷、懸珠日晷、天平日晷、定南日晷、自擊漏、玉漏等精密儀器。宮廷曆法機構編寫《七政算內篇》、《七政算外篇》、《諸家曆象集》等書籍。18世紀初，實學派還將西方的地轉說引入朝鮮。

世宗時代，編纂八卷本《地理冊》，按照一定的體系詳細敘述朝鮮各州郡的歷史變遷、名稱由來、山川、部曲、城池、官坊、烽燧、橋梁、津渡、驛站、按姓氏分類的居民構成、牧場、土產、手工業種類、土地的肥瘠、田結數、租稅、供納、運輸、四季氣候、風俗和路程，相當于一部地理方面的百科全書。與此同時編纂各地的地方志，此後又編寫《東國輿地勝覽》、《東國輿地備考》等地理書籍。地圖方面，先後編纂《八道州郡圖》、《八道山川圖》、《八道圖》、以及按照比例尺繪製的《大東輿地圖》。

實用科學

朝鮮王朝時期實用的發明創造活動同樣非常活躍。農業書籍包括《農家集成》、《農事直說》、《農桑輯要》、《四時纂要》、《課農小抄》等重要書籍。製造並改進雨量計、水文計等科學儀器。高麗時期發明的銅活字印刷技術和排版術得到廣泛應用，1403年在漢城設置鑄字所。17世紀的實學家還深入研究西洋算學，洪大容編寫《籌解應用》，把古代算術發展到包括代數學和幾何學在內的現代數學。

醫學

朝鮮王朝時期是朝鮮傳統醫學的成熟期。由于中國藥材路遠而昂貴，朝鮮越發意識到使用本土鄉藥的必要性。1431-1443年間，盧重禮、俞孝通、樸允德等奉世宗之命以《鄉藥濟生集成方》為藍本，借鑑中國和朝鮮本國醫學書籍編撰了朝鮮醫學史上的首部集大成的著作《鄉藥集成方》。世宗時期，朝鮮還對實用性較強的中醫方劑學進行了整理，為吸收和同化中國醫學提供了有效的方法。1445年，世宗又命金禮蒙等編纂了另一部大型醫學著作《醫方類聚》。該書共365卷（現存僅262卷）歷經朝鮮世宗、世祖、成宗三朝，耗時十餘年于1465年最終刊印，引用中國醫書153部，其中包括40多部中國已佚的古醫書。

燕山君之後，鄉藥醫學開始逐漸衰落。壬辰倭亂期間，眾多無辜百姓死于疾病。當時朝鮮傳統醫學，中國宋、金、元時期醫學，以及剛剛傳入的明朝醫學等種醫學混合在一起，十分混亂。宣祖于是命許浚編撰新的綜合醫書，糾正錯誤理論和處方，並選取正確的處方。1610年，許浚花了14年的時間最終完成《東醫寶鑑》。《東醫寶鑑》是部以《黃帝內經》為理論基礎，加之金元四大家的實際醫學理論，倡導朝鮮鄉藥運用的綜合性醫學理論和臨床典籍。它的問世確立了韓醫學的獨立地位，並最早創用「東醫」作為朝鮮傳統醫學的專用名。鄉藥也重新得到複興。

文化

教育

朝鮮王朝時期的教育制度由官學、私學和特殊教育機構組成。官學分為國立高等教育機構成均館和地方教育機構鄉校。在成均館之下，設有京城東、西、南、中四學，即由高麗五部學堂發展而來的四部學堂。私學有私立中等教育機構書院和初等教育機構書堂。書堂主要招收8-16歲平民子弟，入退學自由，無身份差別，實行單獨學習、按能力學習、專人教育，主要學習《千字文》、《小學》、《詩經》、《易經》、《史記》等。書堂既是私學也是官學的初等教育機構。書院始于1543年豐基郡守周世鵬建立的白雲洞書院。之後，在李滉的努力下，白雲書院得到國家的認可與支持，在朝鮮各地迅速發展起來。書院以程朱理學和其它儒家經典為教學內容，「尊從名儒功臣，明倫揚道，講學專研」。書院培養不少朝鮮名儒，不過在朝鮮王朝後期，一度成為黨爭寄居地。特殊教育有宗學和經筵。宗學是世宗時期為貴族子弟設立的傳授經典、巫術、道德等貴族應該遵守的法道。經筵是大臣給君主授課的制度，主要由弘文館員負責。

1443年朝鮮王朝世宗大王組織一批學者創造適合標記韓語語音的文字體系--韓字。這些文字當時被稱作「訓民正音」，意為「教老百姓以正確的字音」。雖然韓文在發明後的初期，受到兩班貴族這一特權階層的抵制，但隨著民族文字的推廣，教育在庶民和婦女中得以展開。。

文學

朝鮮王朝是文學創作的繁榮時期。訓民正音的發明為國語文學開啟新的起點。高麗王朝末期出現的時調從最初的士大夫階層擴展到社會的各個階層，並發展出「平時調」、「辭說時調」、「於時調」多種形式。與此同時，歌辭作為「長歌」形式也成為與時調並行發展的國語詩歌體裁，朝鮮王朝後期還出現形式更為靈活的「雜歌」。與此同時，漢文詩歌的創作也蓬勃發展。1918年文士張志淵編纂的朝鮮歷代文人的漢詩集《大東詩選》中，朝鮮王朝時期的作品就占到全書12卷中的11卷。此外，樂府詩的創作也得到空前的發展，並形成自成一派的「海東樂府」體，使朝鮮詩歌創作出現多元化的發展局面。

散文呈現出多樣化的發展態勢。高麗後期出現的稗說體散文在朝鮮王朝前半期得到很大的發展，為後世小說的產生起到積極的意義。紀行散文主要有金淨的《濟州風土錄》，丁時翰的《山中日記》，申叔舟的《海東諸國紀》，洪大容的《湛軒燕記》、樸趾源的《熱河日記》，以及崔溥的《漂海錄》等。16世紀末至17世紀中期，由于壬辰倭亂和女真的兩次入侵，一批反省歷史，反映時代問題的紀實散文應運而生，主要有柳成龍的《懲毖錄》，李舜臣的《亂中日記》，石之珩的《南漢解圍錄》，金尚憲的《南漢紀略》等。訓民正音的發明為女性創作文學作品提供便捷的工具。朝鮮王朝時期出現一些宮廷女性創作的國語散文。其中《癸丑日記》、《仁顯王后傳》和《閒中錄》被稱為朝鮮宮廷文學三大散文代表作。

小說作為新的文學樣式開始興起。金時習的《金鰲新話》上承《新羅殊異傳》中《崔致遠傳》的傳奇文學傳統，下啟金萬重《九雲夢》的浪漫主義小說的先河，在朝鮮小說史上有著特殊地位與價值。許筠的《洪吉童傳》是出現較早的文人國語小說，也是朝鮮文學史上首部反映農民起義以及反映社會改革理想的小說。中世紀，朝鮮長篇小說在國語小說家金萬重的帶動下發展到成熟階段，其代表作有長篇小說《謝氏南征記》和《九雲夢》。受《九雲夢》影響，朝鮮文壇之後出現許多以「夢字類」的小說，比如李廷桌的《玉麟夢》，南永魯的《玉樓夢》等。壬辰倭亂和丙子胡亂時期，朝鮮出現了以《壬辰錄》、《樸氏夫人傳》和《林慶業傳》等抵抗外族侵略的愛國主義小說。18世紀中期以後，講唱腳本小說開始在興起，出現了被譽為「朝鮮三大古典小說」的《春香傳》、《沈清傳》和《興夫傳》。

哲學

高麗末年傳入的儒學在朝鮮王朝得到推崇，成為治國理政的思想。16世紀後半期，朝鮮性理學發展到巔峰，出現了以退溪李滉為代表的主理派和以慄谷李珥為代表的主氣派。16世紀末和17世紀初壬辰倭亂和丙子胡亂後，朝鮮文人對程朱理學的清談空論進行了反省，開始研究強國濟民的「有用之學」。「學以致用、經世致用、利用厚生、實事求是」的實學思想，發展成為朝鮮儒學的頂峰。朝鮮實學理論成型于柳馨遠。在其《》中，柳馨遠提出了政治、經濟等方面的改革和實施方案。他將田制看做萬事之本，提出「均人以田，計田出兵，有田者必有役，有役者必有田」的均田制。他還對科舉制度的弊端提出批評，提出任官授職應該依據能力，不分貴賤，並主張廢除奴婢制度。

18世紀前半期，以李瀷為代表的「經世學派」繼承了許多磻溪社會改革觀點，並把實學研究廣泛地擴大到天文、地理、農學、歷史、軍事、哲學、文學等領域。經世學派受西學影響的成分很多，崇尚西方科技，但對天主教的宗教信仰持懷疑態度。18世紀後半期，以洪大容、樸趾源、樸齊家為代表的「北學派」對朝鮮崇明排清的小中華思想進行了批評，提出「華夷一也」的新思想，主張學習清朝和西方先進文化技術。北學派的利用厚生實學繼承了許多經世學派的改革觀點，但與以土地制度改革為中心的經世學派不同，北學派的改革思想是以貨幣流通、商品貿易、技術改革、對外開放為核心，具有一定程度的近代文明性質。18世紀末到19世紀的朝鮮實學代表人物有丁若鏞、金正喜、崔漢綺等。丁若鏞是朝鮮實學思想的集大成者。他的茶山實學縱向繼承了經世學派的實學傳統，橫向吸收了明清實學和朝鮮北學派，以及西學。樸齊家的弟子金正喜在繼承利用厚生的北學派思想的基礎上，吸收借鑑了中國清朝的考據學，確立了朝鮮考據派的實事求是實學。

藝術

朝鮮的繪畫、詩歌、音樂、舞蹈也非常興盛。朝鮮王朝宮廷音樂機構創作朝會雅樂、會禮雅樂、祭禮雅樂，以及《定大業》、《保太平》、《發祥》、《鳳來儀》等朝樂大曲，以及《鳳凰吟》、《滿殿春》、《與民樂》等曲目。此外，在著名的高麗青瓷的基礎上，朝鮮王朝時期還開發出獨具特色的朝鮮白瓷。朝鮮在螺鈿、漆器、金屬、玉石、竹工、木工、牙角、刺繡、砂器等工藝方面也留下很多具有獨特色彩的寶貴遺產。

盤索里

盤索里是朝鮮王朝時期發源于全羅道的一種朝鮮傳統曲藝形式。盤索里表演時一人坐以擊鼓，一人立以說唱。盤索里以唱為主，說為輔，說唱結合。歌者演唱時一人多角，甚至要模仿天地間的各種聲音。盤索里有東便制、西便制和中高制三個流派。

18世紀中葉，盤索里在朝鮮半島南部已經廣為流傳，並在朝鮮宮廷演出。18世紀末期，盤索里已經發展成為整個朝鮮半島富有獨特民族風味的說唱藝術。19世紀上半葉，盤索里開始進入了名唱時代，出現了權三得、宋興祿、廉季達、牟興甲、申萬葉等「前期八名唱」，19世紀上半葉又出現了樸裕全、金世宗、李捺致等「後期八名唱」。19世紀末和20世紀初，盤索里進入以宋晚載、李東伯、劉性俊等人為代表的「五名唱時代」。20世紀初，盤索里與西洋舞台劇相結合的唱劇在朝鮮半島出現。

繪畫

朝鮮王朝設有專門掌管繪畫的機構「」，通過考試在全國選拔畫家。朝鮮王朝早期最具代表性的畫家是安堅，主要代表作是《》。16世紀，朝鮮出現了、申師任堂、等一批擅長畫花、鳥等動植物的畫家。

進入17世紀後，隨著實學的興起，出現了、風俗畫等現實主義的畫風。鄭敾是真景山水畫的代表性畫家。他的代表作《》通過垂直線皴法描繪出其遊覽的金剛山，顯示出與中國畫截然不同的朝鮮風格。以現實生活為主題的風俗畫在18世紀達到頂峰，出現了金弘道、金得臣、申潤福三大風俗畫家。大多數風俗畫以奴婢、農夫、手工業工匠、妓生等社會底層人物為主角。與此同時，朝鮮畫壇還出現了另一種崇尚文人書卷氣的複古極端，代表性人物有姜世晃、、朝鮮正祖、金正喜、張承業等。

陶瓷

高麗王朝末期，由于戰亂高麗官窯遭到很大的破壞。流散到全國各地的瓷匠，開始按各自的偏好在各地小規模建窯制瓷。傳統鑲嵌青瓷工藝在不斷創新的過程中逐漸演變成為更趨實用化的粉青沙器。粉青沙器是在與高麗青瓷相同或更灰黑色的胎面上浸漬或塗刷一層化妝土，然後進行各種風格的裝飾，主要有鑲嵌、印花、剔花、刻花、鐵鏽花、刷制等技法。世宗時期，粉青沙器發展達到高潮。16世紀40年代，朝鮮白瓷開始取代粉青沙器成為朝鮮陶瓷的主流。

世宗時期，朝鮮已經能夠燒制出質量上乘的宮廷御用白瓷。15世紀後半葉朝鮮在京畿道廣州設置官窯後，白瓷開始批量生產。世祖十三年左右，廣州官窯成功燒制出青花瓷。由于青花料價格昂貴，青花瓷被列為禁售、禁用的奢侈品。17世紀由于後金的入侵，青花料無論是從中國進口還是本土開採都變得非常艱難。用氧化鐵代替青花料為顏料的鐵畫白瓷，在崇尚節儉的風氣之下，逐漸替代了青花瓷。17世紀末至18世紀上半葉的朝鮮白瓷潔白度達到最高，被稱為「雪白瓷」。18世紀中葉的正祖時期，朝鮮本土的青花料被大量發現，青花白的產量開始增加。不過，青花白瓷在青花料的使用上非常淡雅、節約，紋飾方面也更具朝鮮風格。英祖二十八年（1752），朝鮮將官窯固定在廣州分院裡。原本貴族化的白瓷開始被大眾化地批量生產。青花白瓷也隨著青花料供應的增加而產量提高。朝鮮白瓷在這一時期瓷土純白，胎質縝密，釉色變青，被稱為「分院器」。這一時期，朝鮮還成功燒出頗具特色的青花、釉里褐和釉里紅並用的釉里三色。

宗教

朝鮮王朝立國後除了世祖和燕山君等幾位國王在位時外，歷代國王通常採取「崇儒廢佛」的政策，有時在國內拆毀佛教寺院。即使是崇佛的燕山君，他在朝時亦受到大臣的廢佛壓力。在廢佛時，寺院的土地予以沒收，並對僧侶徵收重稅。與此同時，高麗時期僧院的飲茶傳統也被禁止，茶道從此在朝鮮失傳，民間則以麥茶作為替代飲料。

在正祖時期，天主教開始傳入朝鮮王朝。正祖八年（1784年），朝鮮使臣李承薰在中國燕京天主教南堂領洗為天主教徒，教名伯多祿。他回國之後開始秘密傳教活動。1791年12月23日，周文謨教士歷盡艱辛，潛入朝鮮傳教。朝鮮政府將天主教視為邪教，在得知有中國傳教士潛入之後，加緊不斷逮捕處決教徒。為了保護廣大朝鮮教徒的安全，周文謨向朝鮮政府自首，於1801年4月19日在漢城被處決，史稱「辛酉邪獄」。眾多教徒和進步思想家如李承薰、丁若鏞等人被處刑和流放。樸趾源、樸齊家等與天主教無直接關聯的北學論者也被降職、革職。直到19世紀末開國時為止，朝鮮的統治者一直對天主教採取打擊和壓迫的政策。

隨著西學東進，與其相對的朝鮮本土宗教東學興起。東學由慶州人崔濟愚于1860年創建。東學雖然有反洋教、反侵略的性質，但倡導與西學相似的反封建，人人平等的思想。東學批判儒家正統 「天命」的形而上學，提出「人乃天」，主張「後天開闢，地上天國」。因此東學在創建之初即遭到受儒學思想影響的朝鮮封建統治者的鎮壓，被視為與天主教一樣的異端邪教。東學第一、二任教主都被封建統治者極刑處死殉教。1892年，朝鮮政府解禁天主教後，對東學的封禁卻有增無減。「萬民平等，後天開闢」的東學思想在1894年引發了東學農民革命。1905年東學第三任教主孫秉熙將東學教改組為近代宗教天道教。

注釋

History

Early Joseon period

Founding

By the late 14th century, the nearly 500-year-old Goryeo established in 918 was tottering, its foundations collapsing from years of war and de facto occupation from the disintegrating Mongol Empire. Following the emergence of the Ming dynasty, the royal court in Goryeo split into two conflicting factions: the group led by General Yi (supporting the Ming) and the camp led by General Choe (standing by the Yuan).

Goryeo claimed to be the successor of the ancient kingdom of Goguryeo (which was later renamed Goryeo); as such, restoring Manchuria as part of Korean territory was part of its foreign policy throughout its history. When a Ming messenger came to Goryeo in 1388, the 14th year of U of Goryeo, to demand that Goguryeo's former northern territory be handed over to Ming China, General Choe seized the chance to argue for an attack on the Liaodong Peninsula.

Yi was chosen to lead the attack; however, he revolted and swept back to Gaegyeong and initiated a coup d'état, overthrowing King U in favor of his son, Chang of Goryeo (1388). He later killed King U and his son after a failed restoration and forcibly placed a royal named Yi on the throne (he became Gongyang of Goryeo). In 1392, Yi eliminated Jeong Mong-ju, highly respected leader of a group loyal to Goryeo dynasty, and dethroned King Gongyang, exiling him to Wonju, and before he ascended the throne. The Goryeo kingdom had come to an end after almost 500 years of rule.

In the beginning of his reign, Yi Seonggye, now ruler of Korea, intended to continue use of the name Goryeo for the country he ruled and simply change the royal line of descent to his own, thus maintaining the façade of continuing the 500-year-old Goryeo tradition. However, after numerous threats of mutiny from the drastically weakened but still influential Gwonmun nobles, who continued to swear allegiance to the remnants of the Goryeo and now the demoted Wang clan, the consensus in the reformed court was that a new dynastic title was needed to signify the change. In naming the new kingdom, Taejo contemplated two possibilities - "Hwaryeong" and "Joseon". After much internal deliberation, as well as endorsement by the neighboring Ming dynasty's emperor, Taejo declared the name of the kingdom to be Joseon, a tribute to the ancient Korean state of Gojoseon. He also moved the capital to Hanyang from Kaesong.

Strife of princes

When the new dynasty was brought into existence, Taejo brought up the issue of which son would be his successor. Although Yi Bangwon, Taejo's fifth son by Queen Sineui, had contributed most to assisting his father's rise to power, the prime minister Jeong Dojeon and Nam Eun used their influence on King Taejo to name his eighth son (second son of Queen Sindeok) Grand Prince Uian (Yi Bangseok) as crown prince in 1392. This conflict arose largely because Jeong Dojeon, who shaped and laid down ideological, institutional, and legal foundations of the new kingdom more than anyone else, saw Joseon as a kingdom led by ministers appointed by the king while Yi Bangwon wanted to establish the absolute monarchy ruled directly by the king. With Taejo's support, Jeong Dojeon kept limiting the royal family's power by prohibiting political involvement of princes and attempting to abolish their private armies. Both sides were well aware of each other's great animosity and were getting ready to strike first.

After the sudden death of Queen Sindeok, while King Taejo was still in mourning for his second wife, Yi Bangwon struck first by raiding the palace and killed Jeong Dojeon and his supporters as well as Queen Sindeok's two sons (his half-brothers) including the crown prince in 1398. This incident became known as the First Strife of Princes.

Aghast at the fact that his sons were willing to kill each other for the crown, and psychologically exhausted from the death of his second wife, King Taejo abdicated and immediately crowned his second son Yi Banggwa as King Jeongjong. One of King Jeongjong's first acts as monarch was to revert the capital to Kaesong, where he is believed to have been considerably more comfortable, away from the toxic power strife. Yet Yi Bangwon retained real power and was soon in conflict with his disgruntled older brother, Yi Banggan, who also yearned for power. In 1400, the tensions between Yi Bangwon's faction and Yi Banggan's camp escalated into an all-out conflict that came to be known as the Second Strife of Princes. In the aftermath of the struggle, the defeated Yi Banggan was exiled to Dosan while his supporters were executed. Thoroughly intimidated, King Jeongjong immediately invested Yi Bangwon as heir presumptive and voluntarily abdicated. That same year, Yi Bangwon assumed the throne of Joseon at long last as King Taejong, third king of Joseon.

Consolidation of royal power

In the beginning of Taejong's reign, the Grand King Former, Taejo, refused to relinquish the royal seal that signified the legitimacy of any king's rule. Taejong began to initiate policies he believed would prove his qualification to rule. One of his first acts as king was to abolish the privilege enjoyed by the upper echelons of government and the aristocracy to maintain private armies. His revoking of such rights to field independent forces effectively severed their ability to muster large-scale revolts, and drastically increased the number of men employed in the national military. Taejong's next act as king was to revise the existing legislation concerning the taxation of land ownership and the recording of state of subjects. With the discovery of previously hidden land, national income increased twofold.

In 1399, Taejong had played an influential role in scrapping the Dopyeong Assembly, a council of the old government administration that held a monopoly in court power during the waning years of the Goryeo kingdom, in favor of the State Council of Joseon ( ), a new branch of central administration that revolved around the king and his edicts. After passing the subject documentation and taxation legislation, King Taejong issued a new decree in which all decisions passed by the State Council could only come into effect with the approval of the king. This ended the custom of court ministers and advisors making decisions through debate and negotiations amongst themselves, and thus brought the royal power to new heights.

Shortly thereafter, Taejong installed an office, known as the Sinmun Office, to hear cases in which aggrieved subjects felt that they had been exploited or treated unjustly by government officials or aristocrats. However, Taejong kept Jeong Dojeon's reforms intact for most part. In addition, Taejong executed or exiled many of his supporters who helped him ascend on the throne in order to strengthen the royal authority. To limit influence of in-laws, he also killed all four of his Queen's brothers and his son Sejong's father-in-law. Taejong remains a controversial figure who killed many of his rivals and relatives to gain power and yet ruled effectively to improve the populace's lives, strengthen national defense, and lay down a solid foundation for his successor Sejong's rule.

Sejong the Great

In August 1418, following Taejong's abdication two months earlier, Sejong the Great ascended the throne. In May 1419, King Sejong, under the advice and guidance of his father Taejong, embarked upon the Gihae Eastern Expedition to remove the nuisance of waegu (coastal pirates) who had been operating out of Tsushima Island.

In September 1419, the daimyō of Tsushima, Sadamori, capitulated to the Joseon court. In 1443, The Treaty of Gyehae was signed in which the daimyō of Tsushima was granted rights to conduct trade with Korea in fifty ships per year in exchange for sending tribute to Korea and aiding to stop any Waegu coastal pirate raids on Korean ports.

On the northern border, Sejong established four forts and six posts (; ) to safeguard his people from the Jurchens, who later became the Manchus, living in Manchuria. In 1433, Sejong sent Kim Jong-seo, a government official, north to fend off the Jurchens. Kim's military campaign captured several castles, pushed north, and restored Korean territory, roughly the present-day border between North Korea and China.

During the rule of Sejong, Korea saw advances in natural science, agriculture, literature, traditional Chinese medicine, and engineering. Because of such success, Sejong was given the title "Sejong the Great". The most remembered contribution of King Sejong is the creation of Hangul, the Korean alphabet, in 1443; everyday use of Hanja in writing eventually was surpassed by Hangul in the later half of the 20th century.

Six martyred ministers

After King Sejong's death, his son Munjong continued his father's legacy but soon died of illness in 1452, just two years after coronation. He was succeeded by his twelve-year-old son, Danjong. In addition to two regents, Princess Gyeonghye also served as Danjong's guardian and, along with the general Kim Jongso, attempted to strengthen royal authority. However, Danjong's uncle, Sejo, gained control of the government and eventually deposed his nephew to become the seventh king of Joseon himself in 1455. After six ministers loyal to Danjong attempted to assassinate Sejo to return Danjong to the throne, Sejo executed the six ministers and also killed Danjong in his place of exile.

King Sejo enabled the government to determine exact population numbers and to mobilize troops effectively. He also revised the land ordinance to improve the national economy and encouraged the publication of books. Most importantly, he compiled the Grand Code for State Administration, which became the cornerstone of dynastic administration and provided the first form of constitutional law in a written form in Korea.

However, he undermined much of the foundation of many existing systems, including the Jiphyeonjeon which his predecessors King Sejong and Munjong had carefully laid down. He cut down on everything he deemed unworthy and caused countless complications in the long run. Many of these adjustments were done for his own power, not regarding the consequences and problems that would occur. The favoritism he showed towards the ministers who aided him in taking the throne led to increased corruption in the higher echelon of the political field.

Institutional arrangements and Prosper culture

Sejo's weak son Yejong succeeded him as the eighth king, but died two years later in 1469. Yejong's nephew Seongjong ascended the throne. His reign was marked by the prosperity and growth of the national economy and the rise of neo-Confucian scholars called sarim who were encouraged by Seongjong to enter court politics. He established Hongmungwan, the royal library and advisory council composed of Confucian scholars, with whom he discussed philosophy and government policies. He ushered in a cultural golden age that rivaled Sejong's reign by publishing numerous books on geography, ethics, and various other fields.

He also sent several military campaigns against the Jurchens on the northern border in 1491, like many of his predecessors. The campaign, led by General Heo Jong, was successful, and the defeated Jurchens, led by the Udige clan, retreated to the north of the Yalu River. King Seongjong was succeeded by his son, Yeonsangun, in 1494.

Literati purges

Yeonsangun is often considered the worst tyrant of the Joseon, whose reign was marked by Korean literati purges between 1498 and 1506. His behavior became erratic after he learned that his biological mother was not Queen Junghyeon but the deposed Queen Lady Yun, who was forced to drink poison after poisoning one of Seongjong's concubines out of jealousy and leaving a scratch mark on Seongjong's face. When he was shown a piece of clothing that was allegedly stained with his mother's blood vomited after drinking poison, he beat to death two of Seongjong's concubines who had accused Consort Yun and he pushed Grand Queen Insu, who died afterward. He executed government officials who supported Consort Yun's death along with their families. He also executed sarim scholars for writing phrases critical of Sejo's usurpation of the throne.

Yeonsangun also seized a thousand women from the provinces to serve as palace entertainers and appropriated the Sungkyunkwan as a personal pleasure ground. He abolished the Office of Censors, whose function was to criticize inappropriate actions and policies of the king, and Hongmungwan. He banned the use of hangul when the common people wrote with it on posters criticizing the king. After twelve years of misrule, he was finally deposed in a coup that placed his half-brother Jungjong on the throne in 1506.

Jungjong was a fundamentally weak king because of the circumstances that placed him on the throne, but his reign also saw a period of significant reforms led by his minister Jo Gwang-jo, the charismatic leader of sarim. He established a local self-government system called hyangyak to strengthen local autonomy and communal spirit among the people, sought to reduce the gap between the rich and poor with a land reform that would distribute land to farmers more equally and limit the amount of land and number of slaves that one could own, promulgated widely among the populace Confucian writings with vernacular translations, and sought to trim the size of government by reducing the number of bureaucrats. According to the Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty, it was said that no official dared to receive a bribe or exploit the populace during this time because as Inspector General, he applied law strictly.

These radical reforms were very popular with the populace but were fiercely opposed by the conservative officials who helped to put Jungjong on the throne. They plotted to cause Jungjong to doubt Jo's loyalty. Jo Gwangjo was executed, and most of his reform measures died with him in the resulting Third Literati Purge of 1519. For nearly 50 years afterward, the court politics was marred by bloody and chaotic struggles between factions backing rival consorts and princes. In-laws of the royal family wielded great power and contributed to much corruption in that era.

Middle Joseon period

The middle Joseon period was marked by a series of intense and bloody power struggles between political factions that weakened the country and large-scale invasions by Japan and Manchu that nearly toppled the kingdom.

Factional struggle

The Sarim faction had suffered a series of political defeats during the reigns of Yeonsangun, Jungjong, and Myeongjong, but it gained control of the government during the reign of King Seonjo. It soon split into opposing factions known as the Easterners and the Westerners. Within decades the Easterners themselves divided into the Southerners and the Northerners; in the seventeenth century the Westerners as well permanently split into the Noron and the Soron. The alternations in power among these factions were often accompanied by charges of treason and bloody purges, initiating a cycle of revenge with each change of regime.

One example is the 1589 rebellion of Jeong Yeo-rip, one of the bloodiest political purges of Joseon. Jeong Yeo-rip, an Easterner, had formed a society with group of supporters that also received military training to fight against Waegu. There is still a dispute about the nature and purpose of his group, which reflected desire for classless society and spread throughout Honam. He was subsequently accused of conspiracy to start a rebellion. Jeong Cheol, head of the Western faction, was in charge of investigating the case and used this event to effect widespread purge of Easterners who had slightest connection with Jeong Yeo-rip. Eventually 1000 Easterners were killed or exiled in the aftermath.

Early Japanese invasions

Throughout Korean history, there was frequent piracy on sea and brigandage on land. The only purpose for the Joseon navy was to secure the maritime trade against the wokou. The navy repelled pirates using an advanced form of gunpowder technologies including cannons and fire arrows in form of singijeon deployed by hwacha.

During the Japanese invasions in the 1590s, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, plotting the conquest of Ming China with Portuguese guns, invaded Korea with his daimyōs and their troops, intending to use Korea as a stepping stone. Factional division in the Joseon court, inability to assess Japanese military capability, and failed attempts at diplomacy led to poor preparation on Joseon's part. The use of European firearms by the Japanese left most of the southern part of the Korean Peninsula occupied within months, with both Hanseong (present-day Seoul) and Pyongyang captured.

However, the invasion was slowed when Admiral Yi Sun-sin destroyed the Japanese invasion fleet. The guerrilla resistance that eventually formed also helped. Local resistance slowed down the Japanese advance and decisive naval victories by Admiral Yi left control over sea routes in Korean hands, severely hampering Japanese supply lines. Furthermore, Ming China intervened on the side of the Koreans, sending a large force in 1593 which pushed back the Japanese together with the Koreans.

During the war, Koreans developed powerful firearms and the turtle ships. The Joseon and Ming forces defeated the Japanese at a deep price. Following the war, relations between Korea and Japan were completely suspended until 1609.

Manchu invasions

After the Japanese invasions, the Korean Peninsula was devastated. Meanwhile, Nurhaci (r. 1583–1626), the chieftain of the Jianzhou Jurchens, was unifying the Jurchen tribes of Manchuria into a strong coalition that his son Hong Taiji (r. 1626-–1643) would eventually rename the "Manchus." After he declared Seven Grievances against Ming China in 1618, Nurhaci and the Ming engaged in several military conflicts. On such occasions, Nurhaci required help from Gwanghaegun of Joseon (r.1608–1623), putting the Korean state in a difficult position because the Ming court was also requesting assistance. Gwanghaegun tried to maintain neutrality, but most of his officials opposed him for not supporting Ming China, which had saved Joseon during Hideyoshi's invasions.

In 1623, Gwanghaegun was deposed and replaced by Injo of Joseon (r. 1623–1649), who banished Gwanghaejun's supporters. Reverting his predecessor's foreign policy, the new king decided to openly support the Ming, but a rebellion led by military commander Yi Gwal erupted in 1624 and wrecked Joseon's military defenses in the north. Even after the rebellion had been suppressed, King Injo had to devote military forces to ensure the stability of the capital, leaving fewer soldiers to defend the northern borders.

In 1627, a Jurchen army of 30,000 led by Nurhaci's nephew Amin overran Joseon's defenses. After a quick campaign that was assisted by northern yangban who had supported Gwanghaegun, the Jurchens imposed a treaty that forced Joseon to accept "brotherly relations" with the Jurchen kingdom. Because Injo persisted in his anti-Manchu policies, Qing emperor Hong Taiji sent a punitive expedition of 120,000 men to Joseon in 1636. Defeated, King Injo was forced to end his relations with the Ming and recognize the Qing as suzerain instead. Injo's successor Hyojong of Joseon (r. 1649–1659) tried to form an army to keep his enemies away and conquer the Qing for revenge, but could never act on his designs.

Despite reestablishing economic relations by officially entering the imperial Chinese tributary system, Joseon leaders and intellectuals remained resentful of the Manchus, whom they regarded as barbarians. Long after submitting to the Qing, the Joseon court and many Korean intellectuals kept using Ming reign periods, as when a scholar marked 1861 as "the 234th year of Chongzhen."

Late Joseon period

Emergence of Silhak and renaissance of the Joseon

After invasions from Japan and Manchuria, Joseon experienced a nearly 200-year period of peace. Joseon witnessed the emergence of Silhak (Practical Learning). The early group of Silhak scholars advocated comprehensive reform of civil service examination, taxation, natural sciences and the improvement in agromanagerial and agricultural techniques. It aimed to rebuild Joseon society after it had been devastated by the two invasions. Under the leadership of Kim Yuk, the chief minister of King Hyeonjong, the implementation of reforms proved highly advantageous both to state revenues and to the lot of the peasants.

Factional conflict grew particularly intense under the reigns of the kings Sukjong and Gyeongjong, with major rapid reversals of the ruling faction, known as *hwanguk* (換局; literally change in the state of affairs), being commonplace. As a response, the next kings, Yeongjo and Jeongjo, generally pursued the Tangpyeongchaek - a policy of maintaining balance and equality between the factions.

The two kings led a second renaissance of the Joseon kingdom. Yeongjo's grandson, the enlightened King Jeongjo enacted various reforms throughout his reign, notably establishing Gyujanggak, a royal library in order to improve the cultural and political position of Joseon and to recruit gifted officers to run the nation. King Jeongjo also spearheaded bold social initiatives, opening government positions to those who would previously have been barred because of their social status. King Jeongjo had the support of the many Silhak scholars, who supported his regal power. King Jeongjo's reign also saw the further growth and development of Joseon's popular culture. At that time, the group of Silhak scholars encouraged the individual to reflect on state traditions and lifestyle, initiating the studies of Korea that addressed its history, geography, epigraphy and language.

Government by in-law families

After the death of King Jeongjo, the Joseon faced difficult external and internal problems. Internally, the foundation of national law and order weakened as a result of "Sedo" politics (in-law government) by royal in-law family.

Young King Sunjo succeeded King Jeongjo in 1800. With Jeongjo's death the Intransigent Patriarch faction seized power with the regency of Queen Dowager Jeongsun, whose family had strong ties to the Intransigents, and initiated a persecution of Catholics. But after the retirement and death of the Queen Dowager, the Intransigents were gradually ousted and the Expedient faction, including the Andong Kim family of Kim Jo-sun, the father of the queen, gained power. Gradually the Andong Kims came to dominate the court.

With the domination of the Andong Kims, the era of *sedo politics* or in-law rule began. The formidable in-law lineage monopolized the vital positions in government, holding sway over the political scene, and intervening in the succession of the throne. These kings had no monarchic authority and could not rule over the government. The yangban of other families, overwhelmed by the power exercised by the royal in-laws, could not speak out. As the power was concentrated in the hands of the royal in-law lineage, there was disorder in the governing process and corruption became rampant. Large sums were offered in bribes to the powerful lineages to obtain positions with nominally high rank. Even the low-ranking posts were bought and sold. This period, which spanned 60 years, saw the manifestation of both severe poverty among the Korean population and ceaseless rebellions in various parts of the country.

Externally, Joseon became increasingly isolationist. Its rulers sought to limit contact with foreign countries.

End of the dynasty

In 1863 King Gojong took the throne. His father, Regent Heungseon Daewongun, ruled for him until Gojong reached adulthood. During the mid-1860s the Regent was the main proponent of isolationism and the instrument of the persecution of native and foreign Catholics, a policy that led directly to the French Campaign against Korea in 1866. The early years of his rule also witnessed a large effort to restore the dilapidated Gyeongbok Palace, the seat of royal authority. During his reign, the power and authority of the in-law families such as the Andong Kims sharply declined. In order to get rid of the Andong Kim and Pungyang Cho families, he promoted persons without making references to political party or family affiliations, and in order to reduce the burdens of the people and solidify the basis of the nation's economy, he reformed the tax system. In 1871, U.S. and Korean forces clashed in a U.S. attempt at "gunboat diplomacy" following on the General Sherman incident of 1866.

In 1873, King Gojong announced his assumption of royal rule. With the subsequent retirement of Heungseon Daewongun, the future Queen Min (later called Empress Myeongseong) became a power in the court, placing her family in high court positions.

Japan, after the Meiji Restoration, acquired Western military technology, and forced Joseon to sign the Treaty of Ganghwa in 1876, opening three ports to trade and granting the Japanese extraterritoriality. Port Hamilton was briefly occupied by the Royal Navy in 1885.

Many Koreans despised Japanese and foreign influences over their land and the corrupt oppressive rule of the Joseon Dynasty. In 1881, the Byeolgigun, a modern elite military unit, was formed with Japanese trainers. The salaries of the other soldiers were held back and in 1882 rioting soldiers attacked the Japanese officers and even forced the queen to take refuge in the countryside. In 1894, the Donghak Peasant Revolution saw farmers rise up in a mass rebellion, with peasant leader Jeon Bong-jun defeating the forces of local ruler Jo Byong-gap at the battle of Go-bu on January 11, 1894; after the battle, Jo's properties were handed out to the peasants. By May, the peasant army had reached Jeonju, and the Joseon government asked the Qing dynasty government for assistance in ending the revolt. The Qing sent 3,000 troops and the rebels negotiated a truce, but the Japanese considered the Qing presence a threat and sent in 8,000 troops of their own, seizing the Royal Palace in Seoul and installing a pro-Japanese government on 8 June 1894. This soon escalated into the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895) between Japan and Qing China, fought largely in Korea. king made a deal with Japan partially out of isolationist views and conservative-misogynistic distrust of the queen's support for open trade policies towards the Western civilizations and China. He ended up preempting a specific disadvantageous, exclusive negotiation with Japan previous to the Queen's decision, which was later used as a political premise for Japan to wage military action. Scholars particularly during the Joseon era were touted for expressing allegiance to the king

Empress Myeongseong (referred to as "Queen Min") had attempted to counter Japanese interference in Korea and was considering turning to the Russian Empire and to China for support. In 1895, Empress Myeongseong was assassinated by Japanese agents. The Japanese minister to Korea, Lieutenant-General Viscount Miura, almost certainly orchestrated the plot against her. A group of Japanese agents entered the Gyeongbokgung Royal Palace in Seoul, which was under Japanese control, and Queen Min was killed and her body desecrated in the North wing of the palace.

The Qing acknowledged defeat in the Treaty of Shimonoseki (17 April 1895), which officially guaranteed Korea's independence from China. It was a step toward Japan gaining regional hegemony in Korea. The Joseon court, pressured by encroachment from larger powers, felt the need to reinforce national integrity and declared the Korean Empire, along with the Gwangmu Reform in 1897. King Gojong assumed the title of Emperor in order to assert Korea's independence. In addition, other foreign powers were sought for military technology, especially Russia, to fend off the Japanese. Technically, 1897 marks the end of the Joseon period, as the official name of the empire was changed; however the Joseon Dynasty would still reign, albeit perturbed by Japan and Russia.

In a complicated series of maneuvers and counter-maneuvers, Japan pushed back the Russian fleet at the Battle of Port Arthur in 1905. With the conclusion of the 1904–1905 Russo-Japanese War with the Treaty of Portsmouth, the way was open for Japan to take control of Korea. After the signing of the Protectorate Treaty in 1905, Korea became a protectorate of Japan. Prince Itō was the first Resident-General of Korea, although he was assassinated by Korean independence activist An Jung-geun in 1909 at the train station at Harbin. In 1910 the Japanese Empire finally annexed Korea.

Government

Joseon kingdom was a highly centralized monarchy and neo-Confucian bureaucracy as codified by Gyeongguk daejeon, a sort of Joseon constitution.

King

The king had absolute authority, but his actual power varied with political circumstances. He was bound by tradition, precedents set by earlier kings, Gyeongguk daejeon, and Confucian teachings. The king commanded absolute loyalty from his officials and subjects, but the officials were also expected to persuade the king to the right path if the latter was thought to be mistaken. Natural disasters were thought to be due to the king's failings, and therefore, Joseon kings were very sensitive to their occurrences. When there was severe drought or a series of disasters, the king often formally sought criticism from officials and citizenry. On those occasions,

critics were immune from prosecution, regardless of what they said or wrote (although there were a few exceptions).

Direct communication between the king and the common people was possible through the sangeon written petition system and the gyeokjaeng oral petition system. Through the gyeokjaeng oral petition system, commoners could strike a gong or drum in front of the palace or during the king's public processions in order to appeal their grievances or petition to the king directly. This allowed even the illiterate members of Joseon society to make a petition to the king. More than 1,300 gyeokjaeng-related accounts are recorded in the Ilseongnok.

Royal seals

Image:Joseon wang bo (Royal Seal Treasure of the Joseon King).svg|before joining the Chinese tributary system period seal used about 10 years.

Image:Joseongukwangjiin (The Seal of the King of Joseon).svg|Ming dynasty tributary period seal.

Image:Joseongukwangjiin (The Seal of the King of Joseon, 1637-1653).svg|Qing dynasty tributary period seal used between 1637 and 1653.

Image:Joseongukwangjiin (The Seal of the King of Joseon, 1653-1776).svg|Qing dynasty tributary period seal used between 1653 and 1776.

Image:Joseongukwangjiin (The Seal of the King of Joseon, 1776-1876).svg|Qing dynasty tributary period seal used between 1776 and 1876.

Image:Daejoseongukjusangjibo.svg|The seal was produced on December 15, 1876, for use in Japanese-related state documents.

Image:Daegunjubo.svg|"Daegunjubo" designed to replace the former sergeant "Joseongukwangjiin". used as the seal of the king for documents such as appointment documents for high-ranking government officials and ordinances proclaimed in Korea.- between 1882 and 1897

Image:DaejoseonDaegunjubo.svg|"DaejoseonDaegunjubo" were used as 『the seal of state』 for credentials in diplomatic relations with other countries. : between 1882 ~

Officials

Government officials were ranked in 18 levels, ranging from first senior rank (정1품, 正一品) down to ninth junior rank (종9품, 從九品). Seniority and promotion was achieved through royal decree, based on examination or recommendation. The officials from 1st senior rank to 3rd senior rank wore red robes. Those from 3rd junior rank to 6th junior rank wore blue. Those below wore green robes.

Here, "government official" means one who occupied an office which gave its holder yangban status - hereditary nobility for three generations. In order to become such an official, one had to pass a series of gwageo examinations. There were three kinds of gwageo exams - literary, military, and miscellaneous. The literary route was the most prestigious. Many key posts, including all Censorate posts, were open only to officials who advanced through literary exam. The literary route involved a series of four tests. To qualify, one had to pass them all. 33 candidates who were chosen in this manner would take the final exam, before the king. The candidate with the highest score was appointed to a position of 6th junior rank (a jump of six ranks). The two candidates with the next highest scores were appointed to a position of 7th junior rank. The seven candidates with next highest scores were assigned to 8th junior rank. The remaining 23 candidates were given 9th junior rank, the lowest of 18 ranks.

The officials of 1st senior rank, 1st junior rank, and 2nd senior rank were addressed with honorific "dae-gam" (대감, 大監) while those of 2nd junior rank and 3rd senior rank were addressed with honorific "yeong-gam" (영감, 令監). These red-robed officials, collectively called "dangsanggwan" (당상관, 堂上官), took part in deciding government policies by attending cabinet meetings. The rest of the ranked officials were called "danghagwan" (당하관, 堂下官).

Central government

State Council

State Council (Uijeongbu, 의정부, 議政府) was the highest deliberative body, whose power however declined over the course of the period. The Chief State Councillor (Yeonguijeong, 영의정, 領議政), Left State Councillor (Jwauijeong, 좌의정, 左議政), and Right State Councillor (Uuijeong, 우의정, 右議政) were the highest-ranking officials in the government (All three were of 1st senior rank). They were assisted by Left Minister (Jwachanseong, 좌찬성, 左贊成) and Right Minister (Uichangseong, 우찬성, 右贊成), both of 1st junior rank, and seven lower ranking officials. The power of State Council was inversely proportional to the king's power. There were periods when it directly controlled Six Ministries, the chief executive body of Joseon government, but it primarily served in advisory role under stronger kings. State councillors served in several other positions concurrently.

Six Ministries

Six Ministries (Yukjo, 육조, 六曹) make up the chief executive body. Each minister (Panseo, 판서, 判書) was of 2nd senior rank and was assisted by deputy minister (Champan, 참판, 參判), who was of 2nd junior rank. Ministry of Personnel was the most senior office of six ministries. As the influence of State Council waned over time, Minister of Personnel was often de facto head of ministers. Six ministries include in the order of seniority.

:*Ministry of Personnel (Ijo, 이조, 吏曹) - was primarily concerned with appointment of officials

:*Ministry of Taxation (Hojo, 호조, 戶曹) - taxation, finances, census, agriculture, and land policies

:*Ministry of Rites (Yejo, 예조, 禮曺) - rituals, culture, diplomacy, gwageo exam

:*Ministry of Defence (Byeongjo, 병조, 兵曺) - military affairs

:**Office of Police Bureau (Podocheong, 포도청, 捕盜廳) - office for public order

:*Ministry of Justice (Hyeongjo, 형조, 刑曺) - administration of law, slavery, punishments

:*Ministry of Commerce (Gongjo, 공조, 工曹) - industry, public works, manufacturing, mining

Three Offices

Three Offices, or Samsa (삼사), is a collective name for three offices that functioned as major organ of press and provided checks and balance on the king and the officials. While modeled after the Chinese system, they played much more prominent roles in Joseon government than their Chinese counterparts. In their role as organ of press, they did not have actual authority to decide or implement policies, but had influential voice in the ensuing debate.

The officials who served in these offices tended to be younger and of lower rank compared to other offices but had strong academic reputation and enjoyed special privileges and great prestige (For instance, censors were permitted to drink during working hours because of their function of criticizing the king). To be appointed, they went through more thorough review of character and family background. Three Offices provided the fastest route of promotion to high posts and was almost a requirement to becoming a State Councillor.

:*Office of Inspector General (Saheonbu·사헌부) - It monitored government administration and officials at each level in both central and local governments for corruption, malfeasance, or inefficiency. It was also in charge of advancing public morals and Confucian customs and redressing grievances of the populace. It was headed by Inspector General (Daesaheon·대사헌), a position of 2nd junior rank, who oversaw 30 largely independent officials.

:*Office of Censors (Saganwon·사간원) - Its chief function was to remonstrate with the king if there was wrong or improper action or policy. Important decrees of the king were first reviewed by censors, who could ask to withdraw them if judged improper. It also issued opinions about the general state of affairs. It was composed of five officials, led by Chief Censor (Daesagan·대사간), of 3rd senior rank.

While the primary focus for Office of Inspector General is the government officials and Office of Censors is focused on the king, two offices often performed each other's functions, and there was much overlap. Together they were called "Yangsa," (양사) which literally means "Both Offices," and often worked jointly especially when they sought to reverse the king's decision.

:*Office of Special Advisors (Hongmungwan·홍문관 弘文館) - It oversaw the royal library and served as research institute to study Confucian philosophy and answer the king's questions. Its officials took part in the daily lessons called gyeongyeon (경연), in which they discussed history and Confucian philosophy with the king. Since these discussions often led to commentary on current political issues, its officials had significant influence as advisors. It was headed by Chief Scholar (Daejehak·대제학), a part-time post of 2nd senior rank that served concurrently in another high post (such as in State Council), and Deputy Chief Scholar (Bujehak·부제학), a full-time post of 3rd senior rank that actually ran the office. There was great prestige attached to being Chief Scholar in this deeply Confucian society. (The office was established to replace Hall of Worthies (Jiphyeonjeon·집현전) after the latter was abolished by King Sejo in the aftermath of Six martyred ministers.)

Other offices

The major offices include the following:

• Royal Secretariat (Seungjeongwon, 승정원) served as a liaison between the king and Six Ministries. There were six royal secretaries (승지), one for each ministry, and all were of 3rd senior rank. Their primary role was to pass down royal decree to the ministries and submit petitions from the officials and the populace to the king, but they also advised the king and served in other key positions close to the king. In particular Chief Royal Secretary (도승지), a liaison to Ministry of Personnel, served the king in the closest proximity of all government official and often enjoyed great power that was derived from the king's favor. Hong Guk-yeong (during Jeongjo's reign) and Han Myeong-hwe (during Sejo) are some examples of chief royal secretaries who were the most powerful official of their time.

• Capital Bureau (Hanseongbu, 한성부) was in charge of running the capital, Hanyang or present-day Seoul. It was led by Panyoon (판윤), of 2nd senior second rank equivalent to today's mayor of Seoul.

• Royal Investigation Bureau (Uigeumbu, 의금부) was an investigative and enforcement organ under direct control of the king. It chiefly dealt with treason and other serious cases that concerned the king and royal family and served to arrest, investigate, imprison, and carry out sentences against the suspected offenders, who were often government officials.

• Office of Records (Chunchugwan, 춘추관) officials wrote, compiled, and maintained the government and historical records. It was headed by State Councillors, and many posts were held by officials serving in other offices concurrently. There were eight historiographers whose sole function was to record the meetings for history.

• Seonggyungwan or Royal Academy (성균관) prepared future government officials. Those who passed first two stages of gwageo examinations (literary exam) were admitted to Seonggyungwan. The class size was usually 200 students, who lived in the residential hall and followed strict routine and school rules. (Tuition, room and board were provided by the government.) It also served as the state shrine for Confucian and Korean Confucian sages. The students' opinions on government policies, especially collective statements and demonstrations, could be influential as they represented fresh and uncorrupted consensus of young scholars. The official in charge was Daesaseong (대사성), of 3rd senior rank, and 36 other officials including those from other offices were involved in running the academy.

Local government

The officials of high rank were sent from the central government. Sometimes a secret royal inspector (Amhaeng-eosa·암행어사) was appointed by the king to travel incognito and monitor the provincial officials. These undercover inspectors were generally young officials of lower rank but were invested with the royal authority to dismiss corrupt officials.

• Provinces (Do·도 道) - There were eight provinces, each of which was governed by Governor (Gwanchalsa·관찰사 觀察使), a position of 2nd junior rank.

• Bu(부) - administrative offices in charge of major cities in provinces. Each bu was led by Buyoon (부윤), which was equivalent to Governor in rank.

• Mok (목 牧) - There were twenty moks, which governed large counties named 'ju'(주 州). They were run by Moksa (목사 牧使), of 3rd senior rank.

• County (Gun·군 郡) - There were eighty counties in Joseon, each governed by Gunsu (군수 郡守), a 4th junior rank.

• Hyeon (현 縣) - Large hyeons were governed by Hyeongryeong (현령 縣令) of 5th junior rank while smaller hyeons were governed by Hyeonggam (현감 縣監) of 6th junior rank.

Administrative divisions

During most of the Joseon period, Korea was divided into eight provinces (do; 도; 道). The eight provinces' boundaries remained unchanged for almost five centuries from 1413 to 1895, and formed a geographic paradigm that is still reflected today in the Korean Peninsula's administrative divisions, dialects, and regional distinctions. The names of all eight provinces are still preserved today, in one form or another.

Military

Royal Guards

Royal guards, the Naegeumwi were elite troops consisting of 200 men tasked with guarding the king, queen, and ministers. These were soldiers hand-selected by the king. They usually wore red robes.

Kings private guard

The King's private guard consisted of personal bodyguards of the king. They wore black robes.

Central army

The central army consisted of 50,000 troops. They usually wore black and white robes. They were commanded by generals appointed by the king.

Foreign affairs

China

Although the Joseon dynasty considered 1392 as the foundation of the Joseon kingdom, Imperial China did not immediately acknowledge the new government on the Korean peninsula. In 1401, the Ming court recognized Joseon as a tributary state in its tributary system. In 1403, the Yongle Emperor conveyed a patent and a gold seal to Taejong of Joseon, thus confirming his status and that of his dynasty.

Traditionally, China had a laissez-faire policy toward Joseon; despite being a tributary of China, Joseon was autonomous in its internal and external affairs, and China did not manipulate or interfere in them. However, after 1879, China abandoned its laissez-faire policy and became directly involved in the affairs of Joseon. This "radical change in China's policy" was in reaction to the growing influence of Western powers and Japan in Joseon, and to ensure China's national security. China's new policy toward Joseon was set by Li Hongzhang and implemented by Yuan Shikai. According to Ming-te Lin: "Li's control of Korea from 1885 to 1894 through Shikai as resident official represented an anachronistic policy of intervention toward Korea."

Gyorin

This long-term, strategic policy contrasts with the gyorin (kyorin) (neighborly relations) diplomacy in dealings with Jurchen, Japan, Ryukyu Kingdom, Siam and Java. Gyorin was applied to a multi-national foreign policy. The unique nature of these bilateral diplomatic exchanges evolved from a conceptual framework developed by the Chinese. Gradually, the theoretical models would be modified, mirroring the evolution of a unique relationship.

Japan

As an initial step, a diplomatic mission was dispatched to Japan in 1402. The Joseon envoy sought to bring about the re-establishment of amicable relations between the two countries and he was charged to commemorate the good relations which existed in ancient times. This mission was successful, and shōgun Ashikaga Yoshimitsu was reported to have been favorably impressed by this initial embassy. Not less than 70 diplomatic missions were dispatched from the Joseon capital to Japan before the beginning of Japan's Edo period.

Reciprocal missions were construed as a means of communication between Korean kings and Japanese shōguns of almost equal ranking. The emperors of Japan at the time were figureheads with no actual political or military power and the actual political and military rulers of Japan that Joseon communicated with were the shoguns who were represented as "tycoon of Japan" in many foreign communications in order to avoid the conflict with the Sinocentric system in which the emperor of China was the highest authority, and all rulers of tributary states were known as "kings".

Society

The exact population figures of Joseon-era Korea are disputed as government records of households are considered unreliable in this period. Between 1810 and 1850, the population declined approximately 10% and remained stable. Before the introduction of modern medicine by the Korean Empire government in the early 20th century, the average life expectancy for peasant and commoner Korean males was 24 and for females 26 years, accounting for infant mortality.

Joseon Korea installed a centralised administrative system controlled by civil bureaucrats and military officers who were collectively called Yangban. By the end of the 18th century, the yangban had acquired most of the traits of a hereditary nobility except that the status was based on a unique mixture of family position, gwageo examinations for Confucian learning, and a civil service system. The family of a yangban who did not succeed to become a government official for the third generation lost their yangban status and became commoners. For most part, the only way to become a government official was to pass a series of gwageo exams (One had to pass "lesser gwageo" exam (소과) in both of two stages to qualify for greater gwageo exam, which again one had to pass in both of two stages to become a government official.) The yangban and the king, in an uneasy balance, controlled the central government and military institutions. The proportion of yangban may have reached as high as 30% by 1800, due to the later practices of transaction of yangban status to peasants, although there was considerable local variation. As the government was small, a great many yangban were local gentry of high social status, but not always of high income.

Another portion of the population were slaves or serfs (nobi), "low borns" (cheonmin) or untouchable outcastes (baekjeong). Slavery in Korea was hereditary, as well as a form of legal punishment. The nobi were socially indistinct from freemen other than the ruling yangban class, and some possessed property rights, legal entities and civil rights. Hence, some scholars argue that it's inappropriate to call them "slaves", while some scholars describe them as serfs. There were both government- and privately owned nobi, and the government occasionally gave them to yangban. Privately owned nobi could be inherited as personal property. During poor harvests, many sangmin people would voluntarily become nobi in order to survive. The nobi population could fluctuate up to about one-third of the population, but on average the nobi made up about 10% of the total population. Joseon slaves could, and often did, own property. Private slaves could buy their freedom.

Many of the remaining 40-50% of the population were surely farmers, but recent work has raised important issues about the size of other groups: merchants and traders, local government or quasi-governmental clerks (Chungin), craftsmen and laborers, textile workers, etc. Given the size of the population, it may be that a typical person had more than one role. Most farming was, at any rate, commercial, not subsistence. In addition to generating additional income, a certain amount of occupational dexterity may have been required to avoid the worst effects of an often heavy and corrupt tax system.

During the Late Joseon, the Confucian ideals of propriety and "filial piety" gradually came to be equated with a strict observance to a complex social hierarchy, with many fine gradations. By the early 18th century the social critic Yi Junghwan (1690–1756) sarcastically complained that "With so many different ranks and grades separating people from one another, people tend not to have a very large circle of friends." But, even as Yi wrote, the informal social distinctions of the Early Joseon were being reinforced by legal discrimination, such as Sumptuary law regulating the dress of different social groups, and laws restricting inheritance and property ownership by women. Precisely because of the tenets of the Confucian Classic of Filial Piety, the adult male practice of Joseon Korea prescribed to keep both hair and beard, in contrast to the Japanese Tokugawa period.

Yet, these laws may have been announced precisely because social mobility was increasing, particularly during the prosperous century beginning about 1710. The original social hierarchy of the Joseon era was developed based on the social hierarchy of the Goryeo era. In the 14th–16th centuries, this hierarchy was strict and stable. Since economic opportunities to change status were limited, no law was needed.

In the late 17–19th centuries, however, new commercial groups emerged, and the old class system was extremely weakened. Especially, the population of Daegu region's Yangban class was expected to reach nearly 70 percent in 1858.

In 1801, Government-owned slaves were all emancipated, and the institution gradually died out over the next century. By 1858 the nobi population stood at about 1.5 percent of the total population of Korea. The institution was completely abolished as part of a social plan in the Gabo Reform of 1894.

Culture

The Joseon Dynasty presided over two periods of great cultural growth, during which Joseon culture created the first Korean tea ceremony, Korean gardens, and extensive historic works. The royal dynasty also built several fortresses and palaces.

Clothing

During the Joseon period, jeogori of women's hanbok became gradually tightened and shortened. In the 16th century, jeogori was baggy and reached below the waist, but by the 19th century, jeogori was shortened to the point that it did not cover the breasts, so another piece of cloth (heoritti) was used to cover them. At the end of the 19th century, Daewon-gun introduced Magoja, a Manchu-style jacket, to Korea, which is often worn with hanbok to this day.

Chima was full-skirted and jeogori was short and tight in the late Joseon period. Fullness in the skirt was emphasized round the hips. Many undergarments were worn underneath chima such as darisokgot, soksokgot, dansokgot, and gojengi to achieve a desired silhouette. Because jeogori was so short it became natural to expose heoritti or heorimari which functioned like a corset. The white linen cloth exposed under jeogori in the picture is heoritti.

The upper classes wore hanbok of closely woven ramie cloth or other high-grade lightweight materials in warm weather and of plain and patterned silks the rest of the year. Commoners were restricted by law as well as resources to cotton at best. The upper classes wore a variety of colors, though bright colors were generally worn by children and girls and subdued colors by middle-aged men and women. Commoners were restricted by law to everyday clothes of white, but for special occasions they wore dull shades of pale pink, light green, gray, and charcoal. Formally, when Korean men went outdoors, they were required to wear overcoats known as durumagi which reach the knees.

Art

The Mid-Joseon period painting styles moved towards increased realism. A national painting style of landscapes called "true view" began - moving from the traditional Chinese style of idealized general landscapes to particular locations exactly rendered. While not photographic, the style was academic enough to become established and supported as a standardized style in Korean painting. At this time China ceased to have pre-eminent influence, Korean art took its own course, and became increasingly distinctive to the traditional Chinese painting.

Ceramics are a form of popular art during the Joseon period. Examples of ceramics include white porcelain or white porcelain decorated with cobalt, copper red underglaze, blue underglaze and iron underglaze. Ceramics from the Joseon period differ from other periods because artists felt that each piece of art deserved its own uniquely cultivated personality.

Beginning in the 10th century, white porcelain has been crafted in Korea. Historically overshadowed by the popularity of celadon, it was not until the 15th and 16th centuries that white porcelain was recognized for its own artistic value. Among the most prized of Korean ceramics are large white jars. Their shape is symbolic of the moon and their color is associated with the ideals of purity and modesty of Confucianism. During this period, the bureau that oversaw the meals and court banquets of the royal family strictly controlled the production of white porcelain.

Blue and white porcelain artifacts decorating white porcelain with paintings and designs in underglaze by using natural cobalt pigment are another example of popular wares of the Joseon period. Many of these items were created by court painters employed by the royal family. During this period, the popular style of landscape paintings is mirrored in the decoration of ceramics. Initially developed by the Chinese at the Jingdezhen kilns in the mid-14th century, Joseon began to produce this type of porcelain from the 15th century under Chinese influence. The first cobalt imported from China was used by Korean artists. In 1463 when sources of cobalt were discovered in Korea, artists and their buyers found the material was inferior in quality and preferred the more expensive imported cobalt. Korean porcelain with imported cobalt decoration contradict the emphasis of an orderly, frugal and moderate life in Neo-Confucianism.

Strikingly different from cobalt, porcelain items with a copper-red underglaze are the most difficult to successfully craft. During production, these items require great skill and attention or will turn gray during the process of firing. While the birthplace of ceramics with copper red underglaze is widely disputed, these items originated during 12th century in Korea and became increasingly popular during the second half of the Joseon period. Some experts have pointed to the kilns of Bunwon-ri in Gwangju, Gyeonggi, a city that played a significant role in the production of ceramics during the Joseon period, as a possible birthplace.

Porcelain was also decorated with iron. These items commonly consisted of jars or other utilitarian pieces.

Literature

During the Joseon period, the Yangban scholars and educated literati studied Confucian classics and Neo-Confucian literature.

The middle and upper classes of Joseon society were proficient in Classical Chinese. The Joseon official records (such as the Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty and Seungjeongwon ilgi) and the written works of the Yangban literati were written in Classical Chinese.

Newspapers like the Hwangseong Sinmun towards the end of the period were written in the Korean language using the Korean mixed script.

Annals of the Joseon Dynasty

The Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty (also known as the Annals of the Joseon Dynasty) are the annual records of the Joseon Dynasty, which were kept from 1413 to 1865. The annals, or sillok, comprise 1,893 volumes and are thought to cover the longest continual period of a single dynasty in the world. With the exception of two sillok compiled during the colonial era, the Annals are the 151st national treasure of Korea and listed in UNESCO's Memory of the World registry.

Uigwe

Uigwe is a collection of royal protocols of the Joseon period, which records and prescribes through text and stylized illustration the important ceremonies and rites of the royal family.

Education

Buddhism and Confucianism

The Joseon kingdom was noted for having Confucianism as its main philosophy. However Buddhism actually was a part of the Joseon period. The study of literary exchanges between Confucian scholar officials and Buddhists shows that Buddhism was not cast out. There literary exchanges show a middle ground of both philosophies. "scholar-officials - Some who in public castigated Buddhism as a heresy and deluded tradition, in private visited temples and associated closely with monks." This shows that while in public some scholars shamed Buddhism their exchanges with Buddhists show that in the very least it was not cast outside of the kingdom.

One example of this is a famous Joseon scholar official (박세당, 朴世堂, 1629–1703). He argues against Buddhism with the following "People say that Han Yu and Ouyang Xiu have harshly criticized Buddhism and therefore have only discussed what is aberrant and have not fully investigated what is profound. People say, their understanding is lacking and they have not fully examined it profoundness. I, myself, don』t think that is the case… The heresies under heaven, they are also rather foul. Among them, Buddhism is the worst. If a person is inclined to Buddhism then he is of the kind that pursues what is foul. Is it not clear that there is nothing further to discuss? It is like Mencius who felt no need to argue in detail when he criticized Yang Zhu and Mozi. Surely, he did not argue further than to say Yang Zhu and Mozi did not respect their fathers and their emperors." However he writes a poem that seemingly supports Buddhism.

Buddhism was a part of the Joseon kingdom. While not supported publicly, privately it was very prevalent in Confucian-scholar officials.

Music

The Joseon period developed several musical forms. The form with the most extant pieces is sijo (Hangul: 시조/Hanja: 時調). Sijo is a poetic form consisting of three lines, each with four feet, traditionally sung very slowly. In Korean verse, a foot is generally a short syntactic unit, such as a noun with an adjective or a verb with an adverb. For example:

Translation

Can tiny insects devour a whole great spreading pine?

Where is the long-billed woodpecker? Why is he not here?

When I hear the sound of falling trees, I cannot contain myself for sorrow.

Here, like other Korean musical forms, each foot can stand on its own. As sijo were sung in Korean, the pioneering of Hangul created the possibility for sijo to be written down without the use of substitutions such as Idu script. The first copy of sijo is of the 'Twelve Songs of Dosan' by Yi Hwang written in 1565, which were written 100 years after the proclamation of Hangul. Additionally, the first anthology of sijo was compiled by Kim Cheontaek in 1728; before the anthology few sijo were written.

Kim Cheontaek's anthology represents a change in the authorship of sijo. At first, sijo were primarily composed by the yangban aristocracy and entertainers of the Kisaeng class. However, by the mid-seventeenth century, the jungin or 「professional class」 were composing sijo as well. This also coincided with a new form of sijo called 「narrative sijo」 (Hangul: 사설시조/Hanja: 辭說時調), in which the first two lines were greatly lengthened.  This expansion is likely a development from the so-called 「irregular sijo」 (Hangul: 엇시조/Hanja: 旕時調), in which there was a minor lengthening of one of the first two lines. While there are very few remaining irregular sijo, and the form has not been revived, there is a sizable body of narrative sijo and the form continues to evolve.

P'ansori (Hangul: 판소리) is another musical form that combines singing and prose to portray a story. Its development likely originates from shaman rituals and the songs within the Jeolla Province. It became a full-fledged musical form by the middle of the eighteenth century, and not long thereafter the yangban aristocracy also became interested in it. Originally there was a set of twelve stories that were sung, but only five were written down, and hence those five are the only ones sung today. Having been developed by commoners, p'ansori usually reflected their attitudes and aspirations, but by becoming popular with the yangban, p'ansori shifted somewhat toward yangban sensibilities and restrictions. P'ansori had a strong influence of the writing of the time, both because of the p'ansori novel (each based on one of the twelve stories) and by increasing the realism of the classical novel.

Science and technology

15th century

The Joseon period under the reign of Sejong the Great was Korea's greatest period of scientific advancement. Under Sejong's new policy, Cheonmin (low-status) people such as Jang Yeong-sil were allowed to work for the government. At a young age, Jang displayed talent as an inventor and engineer, creating machines to facilitate agricultural work. These included supervising the building of aqueducts and canals.

Some of his inventions were an automated (self-striking) water clock (the Jagyeokru) which worked by activating motions of wooden figures to indicate time visually (invented in 1434 by Jang), a subsequent more complicated water-clock with additional astronomical devices, and an improved model of the previous metal movable printing type created in the Goryeo Dynasty. The new model was of even higher quality and was twice as fast. Other inventions were the sight glass, and the udometer.

The highpoint of Korean astronomy was during the Joseon period, where men such as Jang created devices such as celestial globes which indicated the positions of the sun, moon, and the stars. Later celestial globes (Gyupyo, 규표) were attuned to the seasonal variations.

The apex of astronomical and calendarial advances under King Sejong was the Chiljeongsan, which compiled computations of the courses of the seven heavenly objects (five visible planets, the sun, and moon),

developed in 1442. This work made it possible for scientists to calculate and accurately predict all the major heavenly phenomena, such as solar eclipses and other stellar movements.

Honcheonsigye is an astronomical clock created by Song I-yeong in 1669. The clock has an armillary sphere with a diameter of 40 cm. The sphere is activated by a working clock mechanism, showing the position of celestial objects at any given time.

Kangnido, a Korean-made map of the world was created in 1402 by Kim Sa-hyeong (김사형, 金士衡), Yi Mu (이무, 李茂) and Yi Hoe (이회, 李撓). The map was created in the second year of the reign of Taejong of Joseon. The map was made by combining Chinese, Korean and Japanese maps.

16th–19th century

The scientific and technological advance in the late Joseon period was less progressed than the early Joseon period.

16th-century court physician, Heo Jun wrote a number of medical texts, his most significant achievement being Dongeui Bogam, which is often noted as the defining text of Traditional Korean medicine. The work spread to China and Japan, where it is still regarded as one of the classics of Oriental medicine today.

The first soft ballistic vest, Myunjebaegab, was invented in Joseon Korea in the 1860s shortly after the French campaign against Korea (1866). Heungseon Daewongun ordered development of bullet-proof armor because of increasing threats from Western armies. Kim Gi-du and Gang Yun found that cotton could protect against bullets if thick enough, and devised bullet-proof vests made of 30 layers of cotton. The vests were used in battle during the United States expedition to Korea (1871), when the US Navy attacked Ganghwa Island in 1871. The US Army captured one of the vests and took it to the US, where it was stored at the Smithsonian Museum until 2007. The vest has since been sent back to Korea and is currently on display to the public.

Economy

Commerce

During the Goryeo period, Korea had a healthy trade relationship with the Japanese, Chinese, and Manchurians. An example of prosperous, international trade port is Pyongnam. Koreans offered brocades, jewelries, ginseng, silk, and porcelain, renowned famous worldwide. But, during the Joseon period, Confucianism was adopted as the national philosophy, and, in process of eliminating certain Buddhist beliefs, Goryeo Cheongja porcelains were replaced by white Baekja, which lost favour of the Chinese. Also, commerce became more restricted during this time in order to promote agriculture. Because silver was used as currency in China, it played an important role in Korea-China trade.

House of Yi

The following is a simplified relation of Joseon royalty (Korean Imperial Family) during the late period of the dynasty:

• Emperor Gojong (1852–1919) – 26th head of the Korean Imperial Household, adoptive heir to Crown Prince Hyomyeong

　• Emperor Sunjong (1874–1926) – 27th head of the Korean Imperial Household

　• Yi Kang, Prince Imperial Ui (1877–1955) – 5th son of Gojong

　　• Prince Yi Geon (1909–1991) – eldest son of Yi Kang; renounced the Imperial title and heritage by becoming a Japanese citizen in 1947

　　• Prince Yi U (1912–1945) – 2nd son of Yi Kang; adopted as the heir to Yi Jun-yong, grandson of Heungseon Daewongun

　　　• Yi Cheong (1936–)

　　　• Yi Jong (1940–1966)

　　• Yi Hae-won (1919–2020) – 2nd daughter of Yi Kang; married in 1936 to Yi Seung-gyu from the Yongin Yi Clan

　　• Yi Gap (1938–2014) – 9th son of Yi Kang

　　　• Yi Won (1962–) – eldest son of Yi Gap; adopted by Yi Ku as the 30th head of the Korean Imperial Household

　　　　• 1st son (1998–)

　　　　• 2nd son (1999–)

　　• Yi Seok (1941–) – 10th son of Yi Kang; self-claimed head of the Korean Imperial Household

　　　• Yi Hong (1976–), first daughter of Yi Seok

　　　　• 1st daughter (2001–)

　　　• Yi Jin (1979–), 2nd daughter of Yi Seok

　　　• Yi Jeonghun (1980–), son of Yi Seok

　• Yi Un, Imperial Crown Prince (1897–1970) – 28th head of the Korean Imperial Household; married in 1920 to Princess Masako of Nashimoto (Yi Bangja), an imperial member of the Empire of Japan.

　　• Prince Yi Jin (1921–1922)

　　• Prince Yi Ku (1931–2005) — 29th head of the Korean Imperial Household; son of Yi Un

　• Princess Deokhye (1912–1989) — married in 1931 to Count Sō Takeyuki

　　• Jong Jeonghye (1932–?), disappeared since 1956