生平

早期經歷

吳三桂出生于1612年6月8日。吳三桂少年英挺，善騎射，吳偉業說他「白皙通侯最少年」，成名於十八歲，其父吳襄帶領五百名士兵出錦州城巡邏，被皇太極的數萬大軍重重包圍，祖大壽與吳三桂登上城樓觀戰，大壽以城內兵少不肯出兵相救，三桂竟率二十多名家丁將其父吳襄救出重圍。皇太極說：「吾家若得此人，何憂天下？」

鎮守山海關

崇禎四年（1631年）八月，皇太極發動「大淩河之役」，吳襄在赴援時逃亡，導致全軍覆滅，祖大壽棄城奔錦州，孫承宗罷去，吳襄下獄，乃擢吳三桂為總兵。

史載吳三桂部「膽勇倍奮，士氣益鼓」。三桂治軍嚴謹，精銳騎兵一千人，分二十隊，五十人一隊，每隊設一領騎官，吳三桂在自己的靴筒上放這二十名領騎官姓名，一旦抽中誰，便呼叫某領騎官，該領騎官即統五十人騎隊，跟隨他衝鋒陷陣，可謂「無往不利」，是明末最後一支有戰力的鐵騎部隊。松錦之戰爆發，明軍陷入絕境，吳三桂用蒙古降人之計，決定從大路突圍，直奔杏山城。成為當時少數突圍成功的明軍。皇太極見狀讚嘆：「吳三桂果是漢子！得此人歸降，天下唾手可得矣。」

崇禎十七年（順治元年、1644年）三月初，李自成破大同、真定，「京師為之震動」，初四日，崇禎決定放棄關外，任吳三桂為平西伯，飛檄三桂入衛京師，起用吳襄提督京營。崇禎十七年（1644年），吳三桂奉旨入衛首都北京，三月十六抵山海關，一路上「遷延不急行，簡閱步騎」，三月二十抵達河北豐潤時，李自成領導的大順軍已進入北京，崇禎自縊景山（煤山），三桂則引兵退保山海關。

引清兵入關

李自成曾多次招降吳三桂，吳三桂再三猶豫，曾一度有投降李自成的念頭。據傳說其愛妾陳圓圓被李自成部下擄去而作罷。兩面受敵的吳三桂，對內不敵李自成，對外難擋多爾袞。陳圓圓和吳家親人都成了李自成的人質。為保全家人性命，吳答應與李自成議和，為防李自成有詐，又私下以黃河南北分治為條件，向多爾袞求助。多爾袞覆信吳三桂，許諾封他為清朝「平西王」，變合作關係為受降關係。

而在京的李自成，因害怕清兵入關，決定「滅吳保關」，於是發兵二十餘萬，四月十三，由李自成親率大軍，奔赴山海關攻討吳三桂。四月廿二，吳軍初敗，吳三桂求救於多爾袞，多爾袞將計就計，趁吳三桂與李自成談判之機，突然向李自成發動攻擊。李自成卻以為上了吳三桂的當，他認定吳三桂「引狼入室」，于是殺了吳三桂的全家。吳三桂在「一片石戰役」中，聯合清軍擊潰李自成。清軍入關後，攻入北京，多爾袞把年幼的清世祖以及朝廷由東北的盛京遷都至北京，封吳三桂為「平西王」。

從西北到西南

順治二年（1645年）八月，在李自成主力基本被消滅之後，清政府將其從前線調回，出鎮錦州。順治四年（1647年），清政府又調吳三桂入關，與八旗將領李國翰同鎮漢中，受到李國翰的監視。其間剿滅李自成、張獻忠及明朝餘部。

順治六年（1649年）揮軍北上，平定隨山西姜鑲叛亂的，在陝西之叛軍。

順治八年（1651年），吳三桂和李國翰一起率軍入川，攻打大西軍餘部，于川北保寧府擊敗大西軍統帥劉文秀部，平定成都、重慶，之後退守保寧一帶。

順治十五年（1658年），吳三桂以平西大將軍職，自重慶入貴州，匯合當時已攻克貴陽的洪承疇，攻打南明最後一個政權桂王永曆政權。同年李國翰病死，吳三桂得以依靠降軍大力擴張自己的兵力。

順治十六年（1659年），吳三桂攻下雲南，開藩設府，鎮守雲南，總管軍民事務。南明最後一位皇帝永曆帝逃入緬甸。

順治十七年（1660年），清廷以賦稅不足為由，命令吳三桂裁軍，吳三桂將綠營及投誠兵，從六萬人減少至二萬四千人。

順治十八年（1661年），吳三桂出兵緬甸，逼迫緬甸國王莽達交出永曆帝朱由榔。五月二十二日，莽達之弟莽白乘機發動政變，殺死其兄後繼位。七月十九日，莽白誘騙朱由榔身邊大小官員及侍衛、內官等前往者梗的睹波焰塔飲咒水盟誓，卻發兵殺盡侍衛、軟禁朱由榔，是為咒水之難。十二月初一日，清軍迫近緬甸首都阿瓦，莽白將朱由榔獻給吳三桂，押回雲南昆明。

康熙元年（1662年），吳三桂詔進平西親王，兼轄貴州。同年四月在昆明以弓弦處絞朱由榔及其子。

起兵叛亂

康熙十二年（1673年），康熙帝玄燁商議撤藩，吳三桂心不安，以反清複明為號召，於同年十二月處決雲南巡撫朱國治，自稱周王，以「大明天下都招討兵馬大元帥」之名義起兵反清，平南王世子尚之信、靖南王耿精忠、廣西將軍孫延齡、陝西提督王輔臣、察哈爾親王布爾尼、延平郡王鄭經等人先後響應，史稱三藩之亂。燕京楊起隆自稱「朱三太子」，率領八旗旗下家奴四處縱火，藉機起事，被都統圖海、祖承烈等人迅速圍捕。楊起隆突圍逃走，其黨羽數十人被抓。

吳三桂大軍初時勢如破竹，貴州巡撫曹申吉、提督李本深、雲南提督張國柱等人立刻響應，總督甘文焜被叛軍所害，吳軍兵不血刃取得雲貴全境。吳三桂派遣大將王屏藩攻蜀，以馬寶為先鋒攻占湖南沅州。次年（1674年），張國柱、夏國相、龔應麟等相繼攻入湖南各地，清湖南提督桑額敗走宜昌、湖南巡撫盧震放棄長沙，巴爾布、碩岱、珠滿等人固守荊州，不敢出戰，湖南大部份郡縣落入吳軍之手。清四川巡撫羅森、提督鄭蛟麟、總兵譚洪、吳之茂，廣西將軍孫延齡、提督馬雄，襄陽總兵楊來嘉皆舉兵響應。

三月，耿精忠占據福建、囚禁福建總督范承謨，以呼應吳三桂。耿精忠自稱「大明總統兵馬大將軍」，蓄髮易服，以都統馬九玉為中路攻浙江金華等地、總兵白顯忠為西路攻江西饒州等地、曾養性為東路攻打紹興等地，三路大軍北伐，攻陷浙江、江西大部分地區。

清朝接連丟失雲、貴、桂、蜀、湘、閩、秦、隴等八個行省，又喪失浙、贛大部，人心浮動，軍無守志。吳三桂親赴湖南督戰，一時聲勢顯赫。然而吳三桂害怕質子吳應熊被清廷正法，下令諸將停止北進，並委託西藏達賴五世到京師與清廷和談。達賴提議清廷割地以息兵端，被康熙帝拒絕。

去世

康熙十三年（1674年）春，吳三桂攻陷湖南之後在岳州一帶為清軍所阻，形勢逐漸不利。康熙十四年（1675年）四月十三日，吳三桂的兒孫吳應熊、吳世霖被清廷絞死。康熙十六年（1677年），尚之信、耿精忠、王輔臣先後投降清軍，吳三桂失去廣東、福建以及陝西外援，又失江西。清軍連陷湖南瀏陽、平江，招降吳軍水師主將林興珠于湘潭，湖南東北部已在清廷掌控之中。

康熙十七年（1678年）正月，康熙帝諭議政王等曰：「逆賊吳三桂等背恩倡亂荼毒生靈擾亂疆宇，朕念切除兇志安民社仁育義正恩威並行，大將軍等既承簡任當勵忠貞之誼早奏戡定之勳，以副朕愛民至意」。

康熙十七年（1678年）三月，吳三桂為了振奮軍心，在湖南衡陽登基稱帝，國號為周，建元昭武，立妻子張氏為皇后。同年八月在長沙病逝，享年67歲。郭壯圖擁立吳三桂之孫吳世璠繼位，追尊吳三桂為太祖高皇帝，吳應熊為孝恭皇帝。康熙二十年（1681年）十月，清廷最終攻陷昆明，其孫吳世璠自殺，歷時八年的三藩之亂結束。

清朝張茂稷《讀史偶感》：「李陵心事久風塵，三十年來詎臥薪？復楚未能先覆楚，帝秦何必又亡秦。丹心早為紅顏改，青史難寬白髮人。永夜角聲應不寐，那堪思子又思親。」

家庭

妻妾

• 張皇后

• 妾陳圓圓等多人，失考。

• 八面觀音

• 四面觀音

兄弟

• 兄吳三鳳，曾為祖大壽部將，後留守吳氏在遼西中後所的祖墳音訊皆無。

• 弟吳三輔，曾為祖大壽部將，後在京師被李自成所殺。

• 從弟吳三枚，在昆明城廣招門徒，很有勢力。

子女

• 吳應熊

• 侄子吳應期，又名吳應麒，吳三桂待之如子。1680年在雲南試圖發動政變取代吳世璠，被識破後縊殺。

• 另有幼子數人，失考。

• 女六人，分別嫁胡國柱、夏國相、郭壯圖、衛樸、王永寧，一人失考。據李朝實錄，吳三桂有一女嫁蘇克薩哈之子。

孫子

• 吳世霖，1675年與吳應熊一起被處死。

• 吳世璠，1678年成為大周皇帝，1681年兵敗自殺。

• 孫女，吳應熊之女，奉國將軍噶爾圖嫡妻。

• 孫女，吳應熊之女，和碩恭親王常穎之妾，生常穎第六子文殊保。

• 侄孫吳世琮，1677年誘殺廣西將軍孫延齡，1679年敗亡。

有孫女被蔡毓榮隱藏為妾。

吳三桂與《圓圓曲》

吳三桂降清後，漢族文人對之諷刺不絕，其中最著名的莫過於吳偉業（號梅村）所寫的《圓圓曲》。

由於世人將吳三桂變節歸咎於其愛妾陳圓圓被擄，令吳三桂為奪回陳氏而與滿人勾結，詩人吳梅村以西施諷今，譜下七言長詩《圓圓曲》，指出陳圓圓無一絲損害國家之舉，責任應在吳三桂，抨擊了他「衝冠一怒為紅顏」的舉動。

雖然晚清名家王國維比較〈圓圓曲〉與唐代詩人白居易之長恨歌時認為前者不若白氏之平白，境界遜後者一籌。然無可否認，吳偉業能將西施與陳圓圓之際遇融合得絲絲入扣。但最令吳三桂介懷的卻是詩中中段幾句與西施無關，矛頭直指吳三桂的詩句：

據說吳三桂曾出重金希望吳梅村刪改上述幾句，然為吳梅村所拒絕。

評價

清初許多漢族知識分子因為厭惡滿清政權的異族統治，痛恨作為漢人的吳三桂與滿清勾結，導致大順政權及南明政權等漢人政權的覆亡，加上曾殺死永曆帝等明朝皇族和大臣等，斥責他為「漢奸」。吳三桂也成了「漢奸」的代名詞。

影視形象

參考

• 順治二年文秉《烈皇小識》曰：「先是三桂聞京師失守，先帝殉難，統眾入關投降。而三桂父吳襄，故遼東總兵也，逆闖李自成執襄誅求金寶，索詐甚酷，三桂知之，即時追師出關。道清攝政王統兵將入大同，中途相遇，三桂即剃髮詣營，叩首愬冤，願假大兵復仇，砍血立誓。」

• 史可法，《史忠正公祭》：「先國讎之大，而特釋前嫌，借兵力之強，而盡殲醜類」

• 南京殉節的夏允彞，《倖存錄》：「三桂少年，勇冠三軍，邊帥莫之及。闖寇所以誘至之者甚至，三桂終不從。都城已破，以殺寇自矢，包胥復楚，三桂無愧焉。包胥借秦兵而獲存楚社，三桂借清兵而清兵遂得我中華，豈三桂罪哉？所遭之不幸耳。」

• 談遷《國榷》曰：「兵三桂之乞援建州，非其意也。建州告警在正月，又字遠內徙，邊藩盡撤，建州搗虛無疑矣。三桂內絓賊寇，外怵建人，權其兩害，勢必東款以擊寇，而三桂孤矣。當時王永吉輩舍薊遼之師，稍張其翼，三桂當未失路至此。嗚呼！僕固懷恩以回紇靖安史之亂，桑維翰以契丹滅唐，雖撓敗踵至，而兩京收復自如也，石晉初造亦自如也；皆先有成約，輸幣割地，得支吾目前。三桂孤旅，又無一人佐其謀，前門驅虎，後戶進狼，至不暇顧，惜哉。」

• 康熙十年計六奇《明季北略》：「吳三桂欲倡義復仇，以眾寡不敵，遂親往大清國請兵十萬，為朝廷雪恥。大清不允，三桂力懇。大清曰：『明朝文武數無信義，將軍欲建大功，本國何難發兵助陣，恐成功之後，不知將置身何地耳。』三桂曰 ：『桂父子受朝廷厚恩，今日為巨寇弒逆，士庶傷心，神人共憤，桂聞勇士不怯死而滅名，忠臣不先家而後國，今君後俱遭慘弒，桂食君之祿，焉有坐視之理。如必計成敗而後行，是有覬覦於衷也。桂今日誓死報國，雖肝腦塗地，亦所不辭，安問其他。』大清主曰：『將軍姑退，明日再議。』明日，三桂拔髮掛孝，復進謁大清主，痛哭哀懇。大清主遂發兵。」

• 康熙二十二年梅村野史《鹿樵紀聞》，卷下，〈西平乞師〉云：「賊據京師，劉宗敏居（田）弘遇故第，因有譽二姬（陳圓、顧壽）色之都、枝之絕者，宗敏於是繫襄索圓。三桂聞之，即還兵據山海關，刑牲盟眾，誓興復明室。報至京師，白成切責宗敏，立釋襄，厚加撫慰，使作書諭三桂；三桂不從。當是時，國朝聞明都之變，方議入討；而三桂兵少，自揣其力不足以辦賊，遣使因故帥祖大壽來乞師。」

• 三藩之亂後錢軹《甲申傳信錄》：「三桂妾圓圓絕世所稀，白成知之。索於（吳）勷，且籍其家，而命其作書以招子也，勦從命，闖旋以銀四萬兩犒三桂軍。三桂大喜，忻然受命，入山海關而納款焉。行已入關矣，吳勦妾某氏素通家人系，闖籍其家，家人即挈妾逃。倉皇出郭，行數日，竟不暇計南北也。二人猝遇三桂，計無出，詐曰，告變。三桂問曰 ：『吾家無恙乎？』曰：『閱籍之矣。』『吾父無恙乎？』曰：『闖籍之家，並拘執矣。』三桂沈吟久之。厲聲問曰：『我那人亦無恙？』指圓圓也。曰：『賊奪之。』於是，三桂大怒，嗔目而呼曰：『大大夫不能保一女子，有何顏面？」勒馬出關，洪意致死於賊。遂召均史、策士卒，誓眾，以報君父仇烏辭。三桂意氣悲壯，居然有與賊不共戴天之讎。一軍皆嘆曰：『吾帥忠孝人也！」將守胡亮素通滿語，乃獻借兵之策。守亮即入滿營，見九王（多爾袞），王許之，下令去兵相見。三桂見王，聲與淚俱下，侃侃千百言。王義之，即以王呼三桂曰：『吳王真明朝大忠孝人也！』三桂即蘿髮，閱數日，整師南行。」

• 乾隆朝官修《逆臣傳》採用，曰：「（陳沅）為賊將劉宗敏掠去。三桂聞之，作書絕父，馳歸山海關，遣副將楊昆、遊擊郭雲龍來我朝借師」，遂成為官方、士林定論。相對明遺民及三藩之亂後清廷，吳三桂的評價作兩極化。

• 崇禎十二年十月二十九日，《兵部等部為推補吳三桂任團練遼東總兵員缺事題行稿》，「吳三桂。年三十二歲。系遼東前屯千戶衛」

注釋

Early years

Wu was born in Gaoyou, Jiangsu province, in southeastern China, to Wu Xiang and Lady Zu. His ancestral home was Gaoyou. Wu Sangui's father and uncle had fought in many battles. Under this influence, Wu was shaped by war at an early age and took great interest in war and politics.

In his early years, Wu was a student of the artist Dong Qichang. It was this primarily Confucian education that cultivated Wu's scholarliness, resourcefulness, and imposing appearance.

In 1627, the Chongzhen Emperor decided to reinstate the imperial examination system on his accession to the throne, and Wu became a first-degree military scholar (juren) at the age of fifteen. He and his two brothers joined the army and served as generals garrisoning the Daling River and Ningyuan in the army of general Zu Dashou.

In 1630, while gathering information about the enemy, Wu's father, Wu Xiang, was encircled by tens of thousands of Qing troops. Wu was denied help from his maternal uncle, Zu Dashou, and so decided to rescue his father with a force of about 20 soldiers chosen from his personal retinue. The Manchus being bewildered by the small Ming cavalry force, Wu Sangui and his men charged into the enemy encirclement, killed the Manchu general and saved Wu Xiang. Both Hong Taiji and Zu Dashou were impressed by Wu's valour, and Zu Dashou recommended Wu's promotion. Wu Sangui gained the position of guerrilla general when he was no older than 20.

Service under the Ming dynasty

Garrisoning Liaodong

In 1632, the Ming court transferred the Liaodong army to Shandong, to defeat the rebel armies of Kong Youde. Wu, who was 22 years old at that time, served as a guerrilla general and fought side by side with his father, Wu Xiang. Wu rose to the rank of deputy general and was promoted to full general in September of that year. In September 1638, Wu served as a deputy general again.

At the beginning of 1639, as the situation in Liaodong became increasingly tense, the Ming court transferred general Hong Chengchou as the governor-general (总督 Zǒngdū|w=) of Jiliao; Hong appointed Wu as the general in charge of training.

In October 1639, a Qing army of more than 10,000 men, commanded by Duoduo and Haoge, invaded Ningyuan. Jin Guofeng, full general of Ningyuan, immediately led troops to confront the Qing army but was surrounded and killed. Wu took Jin's place as full general of Ningyuan, and became a guardian general of Liaodong.

After Wu served as the full general in Ningyuan, he made the local army the strongest in Liaodong, having 20,000 troops at Ningyuan town. To enhance their combat power, Wu selected 1,000 elite soldiers to form a fearless battalion. The battalion was trained and commanded by Wu himself, making these men his bodyguard who would come at Wu's call at any time. They were the core of his army and laid the foundation for Wu's military achievements.

In March 1640, Hong Taiji appointed Jirgalang and Duoduo as left and right commander, respectively, marching towards the north of Jinzhou. Aiming to besiege Jinzhou, they reestablished Yizhou, garrisoned the troops, opened up wasteland, grew food grain, and forbade any cultivation in the Ningjin area outside Shanhai Pass.

Battle of Xingshan

On 18 May 1640, Wu Sangui met the Qing army in battle at Xingshan. Jirgalang led 1,500 soldiers to accept the surrender of the Mongolian people, but they were spotted by general Liu Zhaoji when passing the Ming army. Liu Zhaoji led 3,000 soldiers against the Qing army. At that time, Wu Sangui was stationed in Songshan and brought a 3,000-strong force the moment he heard the news. From Jinzhou, Zu Dashou sent more than 700 soldiers as a reserve. At first, the Ming army seemed more powerful with superior numbers; but, after the pursuit of Jiamashan, the Qing army was able to surround Wu Sangui.

Wu Sangui was unable to withstand the repeated attacks from both Jirgalang and Duoduo. He fought a bloody battle with the Qing army, but could not break through the siege until Liu Zhaoji came to his rescue. The Ming army casualties were more than 1000, with deputy general Yanglun and Zhou Yanzhou dead, but Wu Sangui's bravery was still praised.

Battle of Songjin

On 25 April 1641, the battle of Songjin began with an attack by the Ming army, Wu Sangui leading and personally killing ten enemies, defeating the Qing cavalry. After the battle, Wu Sangui was regarded as its most outstanding general.

In June 1641, Hong Chengchou and Wu Sangui returned to Songshan and garrisoned the northwest area. Prince Zheng Jirgalang attacked several times towards Songshan and Xinshan but was defeated repeatedly, the Ming army succeeding in surrounding the Qing army four times. Though the Qing army finally broke through the encirclement, their casualties were very high. Due to Wu Sangui's bravery, the Ming army remained on the offensive, but it also paid a heavy price.

On 20 August 1641, the Ming army attacked the Qing camp. The battle lasted the whole day, and the result was too close to call. However, Prince Ajige unexpectedly captured the Ming army's provisions in Bijia Mountain, significantly undermining their ability to fight. The battle continued on 21 August, and was unfavourable to the Ming army. After this defeat Datong full general Wang Pu lost the will to fight. Before Hong Chengchou issued orders, Wang fled with his troops, which completely disrupted the original breakthrough plan. More surprisingly, Wu Sangui also fled in the chaos, escaping on Wang's heel. At such a life-or-death moment, Wu revealed selfishness.

The Ming army attempted to withdraw, pursued by the Qing. In a matter of a few days, more than 53,000 people and 7,400 horses of the Ming army were killed. They had no way to flee and no will to fight. Only 30,000 survived after fleeing back to Ningyuan.

Wu Sangui survived not only by following Wang Pu, but by having a good retreat plan. When Hong Chengchou ordered the breakthrough, Wu Sangui went back to his camp and immediately discussed tactics with his generals. They decided to give up the small path and flee on the main road. As expected, the Qing army had only cut off the small path, while no more than 400 soldiers held the main road under Hong Taiji. Seeing Wu Sangui's fierce charge, Hong Taiji restrained his army from pursuing. Hong thought highly of Wu, and considered gaining his favor as the key to conquering the dynasty.

The breakthrough at Songshan resulted in the deaths of 52,000 members of the Ming elite army, which greatly wounded the Ming dynasty. Wu and Wang Pu could not escape the fate of being punished for fleeing and avoiding combat and were sentenced to death.

Promotion after the defeat

A few days later, Wu, who had fled to Ningyuan, received the imperial decree of the Chongzhen emperor. Surprisingly, Wu was promoted above all the full generals. This implied that Wu would not be punished, which was beyond the comprehension of many government officials. Even more surprising was the fact that, months later, when someone in the court called for an investigation to determine responsibility for the Songshan defeat, only Wang Pu was arrested while Wu continued to serve as a governor general of Liaodong, garrisoned in Ningyuan. This caused an outcry in the Ming court.

In May 1642, the result of the Ming court's re-examination was the death penalty for Wang Pu, and demotion of three levels in rank for Wu. Wu continued to serve as full general in Ningyuan and was in charge of the training of the Liaodong army.

Defection to the Qing

Surrender to the Qing dynasty

By February 1642, the Ming Dynasty had lost four of the eight vital cities beyond the Shanhaiguan Pass to the Manchu army. Ningyuan, where Wu was stationed, became Beijing's last defence against the Manchu army. Hong Taiji repeatedly attempted to persuade Wu to surrender, to no avail. Wu did not side with the Qing Dynasty until after the defensive capability of the Ming Dynasty had been greatly weakened with its political apparatus destroyed by the rebel armies of Li Zicheng's Shun dynasty.

In early 1644, Li Zicheng, the head of a peasant rebel army, launched his force from Xi'an for his final offensive northeast toward Beijing. The Chongzhen Emperor decided to abandon Ningyuan and called upon Wu to defend Beijing against the rebels. Wu Sangui received the title Pingxi Bo (平西伯 Píng xībó|l=Count who pacifies the West) as he moved to face the peasant army.

At the time of Beijing's fall to Li Zicheng, on 25 April 1644, Wu and his 40,000-man army—the most significant Ming fighting force in northern China—were on the way to Beijing to come to the Chongzhen Emperor's aid but then received word of the emperor's suicide. So they garrisoned the Shanhai Pass, the eastern terminus of the main Great Wall instead. Wu and his men were then caught between the rebels within the Great Wall and the Manchus without.

After the collapse of the Ming dynasty, Wu and his army became a vital military force in deciding the fate of China. Both Dorgon and Li Zicheng tried to gain Wu's support. Li Zicheng took a number of measures to secure Wu's surrender, granting silver, gold, a dukedom, and most crucially by capturing Wu's father Wu Xiang, ordering the latter to write a letter to persuade Wu to pledge allegiance to Li.

At first, Wu intended to surrender to Li Zicheng, but when he heard of the predatory behaviour of Li's army and his father's captivity, he changed his plans. Instead, he killed Li's envoy. To save the life of his family, he wrote back to his father scolding him for his disloyalty and claiming to be breaking relations with his father. Furthermore, he sent several generals to pretend to pledge allegiance to Li. He knew that his force alone was insufficient to fight Li's main army. He wrote to Dorgon for military support, under the condition of restricting the dominance of Ming and Manchus to southern and northern China, respectively, claiming to resume the Ming Dynasty. The Manchu prince-regent Dorgon determined that this was an opportunity to claim the Mandate of Heaven for the Qing. Dorgon made clear in his reply that the Manchus would help Wu, but Wu would have to submit to the Qing. Wu did not accept at first.

Li Zicheng sent two armies to attack the pass, but Wu's battle-hardened troops defeated them easily on 5 and 10 May 1644. In order to secure his position, Li was determined to destroy Wu's army. On 18 May, he personally led 60,000 troops out of Beijing to attack Wu. and defeated Wu on 21 May. The next day, Wu wrote to Dorgon for help. Dorgon took the opportunity to force Wu to surrender, and Wu had little choice but to accept. On 22 May 1644, Wu opened the gates of the Great Wall of China at Shanhai Pass to let Qing forces into China proper, forming an alliance with the Manchus. Wu ordered his soldiers to wear white cloths attached to their armour, to distinguish them from Li Zicheng's forces. Together, Wu's army and the Qing forces defeated the Shun rebels in the Battle of Shanhai Pass on 27 May 1644. Having defeated Li's main army, the Qing marched into Beijing unopposed and enthroned the young Shunzhi Emperor in the Forbidden City. Wu pledged allegiance to the Qing dynasty.

Suppressing the rebellion in Shanxi

Wu Sangui surrendered to the Qing dynasty and received the title of Pingxi Wang (平西王 Píngxī wáng|l=Prince who pacifies the West). However, he remained fearful that the Qing dynasty held him in suspicion.

In October 1644, Wu received orders to suppress the rebel peasant army. At that time, Li Zicheng still held Shanxi, Hubei, Henan, and other areas, and was gathering his troops to rise again. Wu, together with Shang Kexi, led his soldiers to Shanxi against the rebel army under Ajige, the General of Jingyuan appointed by the prince regent Dorgon. From October to the following August, when he returned to Beijing, Wu fought the peasant army and achieved great success.

Li Zicheng held a grudge against Wu for his faithlessness, so he executed thirty-eight members of the Wu household, including Wu's father, whose head was displayed on the city wall. Enraged, Wu hardened his resolve to resist the new regime and defeated the Shun vanguard led by Tang Tong on 3 and 10 May. In June 1645, Wu Sangui captured Yulin and Yan'an. At the same time Li Zicheng was killed by a village head in Tongshan county, Hubei Province.

In 1645, the Qing court rewarded Wu Sangui with the title of Qin Wang (亲王 Qīnwáng|l=Prince of the Blood) and ordered him to garrison Jinzhou. The high-sounding title was belied by transferring Wu to Jinzhou, which had lost its position as a militarily important town and become an insignificant rear area. Moreover, along with a large number of Manchu and Han people migrating into central China, it had become sparsely populated and desolate. Hence, Wu felt perplexed and upset.

On 19 August 1645, before Wu returned to Liaodong from Beijing, he submitted his request to the Qing imperial court to renounce his title as Qin Wang (Prince). After giving up his title, he began to make efforts to consolidate his strength by demanding troops, territory, compensation, and reward for the generals under his command, which were all granted by the imperial court.

In July 1646, when Wu Sangui was summoned by the emperor, the Qing court granted him a total of 10 horses and 20,000 pieces of silver as an extra reward. Wu wasn't pleased, however, since he had been set aside since his return to Jinzhou, while the army of Kong Youde, Geng Jingzhong, and Shang Kexi had been fighting against the South Ming Dynasty in Hunan and Guangxi since 1646.

Suppressing the rebellion in Sichuan

In 1648, the rebellion against the Qing dynasty reached its climax. In the west, Jiang Xiang, the full general of Datong, waged an insurgency in Shanxi, while, in the south, in Nanchang and Guangzhou, Jin Shenghuan and Li Chengdong also rebelled, which dramatically changed the military situation.

The rebellion from the surrendered Han generals greatly shocked the Qing dynasty rulers. They came to realize the significance role of these conquered generals to the control of central China, as well as the importance of the strategy of "using Han to rule Han" (以汉制汉). In this situation, Wu thrived again.

At the beginning of 1648, the Qing imperial court ordered Wu to move his family west and garrison Hanzhong as Pingxi Wang with Chief General (Du Tong) of the Eight Banners Moergen and Li Weihan. In less than one year, Wu suppressed the rebellion in most regions of Shanxi and reversed the situation in the northwest. After that, Wu, charging at the head of his troops in every battle, proved his loyalty to the Qing dynasty. After four years of struggle, peace came to Shaanxi province. Wu was praised for his contribution by the Qing imperial court, and his status rose.

In 1652, the rebel Daxi army became the main force rebelling against the Qing. The situation was made difficult by the deaths of the Qing generals Kong Youde and Ni Kan, when the rebels Li Dingguo and Liu Wenxiu's troop marched into Sichuan. The Qing imperial court then summoned Wu to suppress the Daxi army in Sichuan. However, Wu Sangui was being closely watched by general Li Guohan, a trusted advisor to the imperial court. Wu wasn't able to free himself from surveillance until a few years later, when Li Guohan died. Hence, Wu enhanced his military strength rapidly by gaining a large number of enemy surrenders.

Garrisoning Yunnan

In 1660, the Qing army split into three parts, marched into Yunnan province, and eliminated the South Ming Dynasty, thus achieving the preliminary unification of the mainland. Nevertheless, the imperial court still faced a number of serious military and political threats. The Yongli Emperor of the Southern Ming dynasty and Li Dingguo of the Daxi army retreated to Burma, and they maintained influence in Yunnan. It was inconvenient for the Eight Banners soldiers to garrison the Yunnan Guizhou border area, which was far away from the capital. As a result, the imperial court could only approve the proposal by Hong Chengchou to withdraw those soldiers, and give Wu, and his army, command of the border area. Thus, Wu not only commanded a large army but also controlled vast territory.

In 1661, the green-flag army under Wu numbered 60,000, while Shang Kexi and Geng Jimao had only 7,500 ad 7,000 soldiers in their armies. Wu planned to permanently garrison and was preparing to make the border area his own. However, Yunnan was not stable at that time, for newly surrendered soldiers had not been fully assimilated into the Qing force. Moreover, the Daxi army had been building in Yunnan over decades and shared a close relationship with various minority nationalities. Many Tusi leaders refused to accept the rule of Wu, which led to a series of rebellions. The existence of the Yongli Emperor of the Southern Ming dynasty and Li Dingguo's army was regarded as a great threat to Wu. Therefore, Wu was actively preparing for their elimination to consolidate his rule. He exaggerated the rebellion's threat, spread rumors. and submitted his proposal to the court, urging the invasion of Burma, which, after a time, the imperial court approved.

In June 1662, the Yongli Emperor was captured and killed, while Li Dingguo died of illness. In the next few years, Wu led his army from the northwest to the southwest border and enabled the Qing dynasty's dominance in that part of the country.

Loyalty and revolt

After he defeated the remnant Ming forces in southwestern China, Wu was rewarded by the Qing imperial court with the title of Pingxi Wang (平西王; translated as "Prince Who Pacifies the West" or "King Who Pacifies the West") with a fief in Yunnan. It had been extremely rare for someone outside of the imperial clan, especially a non-Manchu, to be granted the title of Wang. Those who were not members of the imperial clan and awarded the title were called Yixing Wang ( literally meaning "kings with other family names") or known as "vassal kings". These vassal kings usually came to a bad end, mainly because they were not trusted by the emperors.

At the end of 1662, Guizhou province came under the jurisdiction of Wu. Meanwhile, Wu's son, Wu Yingxiong (Wu Shifan's father), married Princess Jianning, the 14th daughter of the Kangxi Emperor's grandfather Hong Taiji. She was Fulin's (the Shunzhi Emperor's) sister.

The Qing imperial court did not trust Wu, but he was still able to rule Yunnan with little or no interference. This was because the Manchus, an ethnic minority, needed time after their prolonged conquest to figure out how to impose the rule of a dynasty of a tiny minority on the vast Han-Chinese society. As a semi-independent ruler in the distant southwest, Wu was seen as an asset to the Qing court. For much of his rule, he received massive annual subsidies from the central government. This money, as well as the long period of stability, was spent by Wu in building his army, in preparation for an eventual clash with the Qing dynasty.

Wu in Yunnan, along with Shang Kexi in Guangdong and Geng Jingzhong in Fujian—the three great Han military allies of the Manchus, who had pursued the rebels and the Southern Ming pretenders—became a financial burden on the central government. Their virtually autonomous control of large areas threatened the stability of the Qing dynasty. The Kangxi Emperor decided to make Wu and two other princes who had been rewarded with large fiefs in southern and western China move from their lands to resettle in Manchuria. In 1673, Shang Kexi requested permission to retire and return to his homeland in the north, and the Kangxi Emperor granted the request at once. Forced into an awkward situation, Wu and Geng Jingzhong requested the same shortly afterwards. The Kangxi Emperor granted their requests and decided to dissolve the three vassal states, overriding all objections.

Driven by the threat to their interests, the three revolted and thus began the eight-year-long civil war known as the Revolt of the Three Feudatories. Before the rebellion, Wu sent a confidant to Beijing to retrieve Wu Yingxiong, his son and the young emperor's uncle-in-law; but his son disagreed. The confidant only brought back Wu Shipan, Wu Yingxiong's son by a concubine. On 28 December 1673, Wu killed Zhu Guozhi, the governor of Yunnan, and rebelled "against the alien and rebuilding Ming dynasty". On 7 January 1674, 62-year-old Wu led troops from Yunnan on the northern expedition and took the whole territory of Guizhou province without any loss. Wu Yingxiong and his sons with Princess Jianning was executed by the Kangxi Emperor soon after his father's rebellion. Shortly afterwards, Wu founded his own Zhou dynasty. By April 1674, Wu Sangui's army had quickly occupied Hunan, Hubei, Sichuan, and Guangxi. In the next 2 years, Geng Jingzhong, Wang Fuchen, and Shang Zhixin successively rose in rebellion, and Wu's rebellion had expanded into the Revolt of the Three Feudatories. By April 1676, the rebel force possessed 11 provinces (Yunnan, Guizhou, Sichuan, Shanxi, Gansu, Hunan, Guangdong, Guangxi, Fujian, Zhejiang, and Jiangxi). For a moment, the situation seemed to favor Wu.

Unexpectedly, Wu halted his march and stayed south of Yangzi river for three months because of a shortage of troops and financial resources, which gave the Kangxi emperor a chance to assemble his forces. Wang Fuchen, Geng Jingzhong, and Shang Zhixin surrendered one after another under the attack of Qing forces.

In 1678, Wu Sangui went a step further and declared himself the emperor of the "Great Zhou Dynasty", with the era name of Zhaowu (昭武). He established his capital at Hengzhou (present-day Hengyang, Hunan). When he died in October 1678, his grandson, Wu Shifan, took over command of his forces and continued the struggle. The remnants of Wu's armies were defeated soon after, in December 1681, and Wu Shifan committed suicide. Wu's son-in-law was sent to Beijing with Wu Shifan's head. The Kangxi Emperor sent parts of Wu's corpse to various provinces of China.

Great Zhou Dynasty (1678–1681)

Physical appearance

Late Ming dynasty historians left behind records describing Wu Sangui as a valiant and handsome general of medium height, with pale skin, a straight nose, and big ears. However, there was an obvious scar on his nose. He was neither muscular nor particularly strong-looking. However, he demonstrated great courage and physical strength from an early age and possessed excellent skills in horse-riding and archery.

In popular culture

In contemporary China, Wu Sangui has often been regarded as a traitor and an opportunist, due to his betrayal of both the Ming and Qing dynasties. Wu's name is synonymous with betrayal (similar to the use of "Benedict Arnold" in the United States). However, more sympathetic characterizations are sometimes voiced, and it is clear that Wu's romance with and love for his concubine, Chen Yuanyuan, remains one of the classic love stories in Chinese history.

Wuxia writer Louis Cha's 1969 novel The Deer and the Cauldron portrays Wu as a powerful nemesis of the Kangxi Emperor, who sends the protagonist of the novel, Wei Xiaobao, to scout out Wu's forces in Yunnan.

Wu's early life and military career are portrayed in a more positive light in the 2003 CCTV television series The Affaire in the Swing Age, in which he is shown as being forced into making the fateful decisions that have made him infamous.